Local Burn Research Articles

Follow-Up Evaluation of the U.S. Army Institute of Surgical Research Burn Flow Sheet for En Route Care Documentation of Burned Combat Casualties.

In 2006, burn clinical practice guidelines were developed to provide recommendations for optimal care of U.S. military and local national burn casualties. As part of that effort, a paper-based Burn Flow Sheet (BFS) was included to document the burn resuscitation of combat casualties with ≥20% total body surface area burns. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the BFS in terms of ongoing utilization, resuscitation management, and outcomes of patients transported. A retrospective review was performed of hard-copy BFSs received from January 2007 to December 2013. En route injury and treatment data from these flowsheets were manually transcribed into the research database. Outcomes and complications of BFS subjects were extracted from the Burn Center Registry and added to the research database. A total of 73 BFSs were collected from the study period. On average, BFSs were 61 ± 30% complete with a total of 14.7 ± 7 hours documented per patient in the first 24-hours postburn. Patients received nearly 7 L more fluid than estimated by traditional formulas. Sixteen patients (26%) received greater than 250 mL/kg of fluid, half of whom had concomitant traumatic injuries. Fifteen patients received a fasciotomy (21%), 4 received a laparotomy (5%), and 8 (11%) received both. No patients developed abdominal compartment syndrome associated with fluid resuscitation. Overall mortality was 21%. Although the majority of providers did initiate a BFS, it was not always used as intended; problems included missing data and miscalculations. Although there was a clear improvement with decline in the incidence of abdominal compartment syndrome, mortality did not change for severely burned patients. Simplification of the recommendations, additional built-in prompts, and automated tools such as computerized decision support software may help standardize practice and improve outcomes.

A New Fire Hazard for MR Imaging Systems: Blankets—Case Report

In this report, a case of fire in a positron emission tomography (PET)/magnetic resonance (MR) imaging system due to blanket combustion is discussed. Manufacturing companies routinely use copper fibers for blanket fabrication, and these fibers may remain within the blanket hem. By folding a blanket with these copper fibers within an MR imaging system, one can create an electrical current loop with a major risk of local excessive heating, burn injury, and fire. This hazard applies to all MR imaging systems. Hybrid PET/MR imaging systems may be particularly vulnerable to this situation, because blankets are commonly used for fluorodeoxyglucose PET to maintain a normal body temperature and to avoid fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in brown adipose tissue. © RSNA, 2017.

Complex networks of functional connectivity in a wetland reconnected to its floodplain

AbstractDisturbances such as fire or flood, in addition to changing the local magnitude of ecological, hydrological, or biogeochemical processes, can also change their functional connectivity—how those processes interact in space. Complex networks offer promise for quantifying functional connectivity in watersheds. The approach resolves connections between nodes in space based on statistical similarities in perturbation signals (derived from solute time series) and is sensitive to a wider range of timescales than traditional mass‐balance modeling. We use this approach to test hypotheses about how fire and flood impact ecological and biogeochemical dynamics in a wetland (Everglades, FL, USA) that was reconnected to its floodplain. Reintroduction of flow pulses after decades of separation by levees fundamentally reconfigured functional connectivity networks. The most pronounced expansion was that of the calcium network, which reflects periphyton dynamics and may represent an indirect influence of elevated nutrients, despite the comparatively smaller observed expansion of phosphorus networks. With respect to several solutes, periphyton acted as a “biotic filter,” shifting perturbations in water‐quality signals to different timescales through slow but persistent transformations of the biotic community. The complex‐networks approach also revealed portions of the landscape that operate in fundamentally different regimes with respect to dissolved oxygen, separated by a threshold in flow velocity of 1.2 cm/s, and suggested that complete removal of canals may be needed to restore connectivity with respect to biogeochemical processes. Fire reconfigured functional connectivity networks in a manner that reflected localized burn severity, but had a larger effect on the magnitude of solute concentrations.

Burn Injury Alters Epidermal Cholinergic Mediators and Increases HMGB1 and Caspase 3 in Autologous Donor Skin and Burn Margin.

Burn wound healing complications, such as graft failure or infection, are a major source of morbidity and mortality in burn patients. The mechanisms by which local burn injury alters epidermal barrier function in autologous donor skin and surrounding burn margin are largely undefined. We hypothesized that defects in the epidermal cholinergic system may impair epidermal barrier function and innate immune responses. The objective was to identify alterations in the epidermal cholinergic pathway, and their downstream targets, associated with inflammation and cell death. We established that protein levels, but not gene expression, of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRNA7) were significantly reduced in both donor and burn margin skin. Furthermore, the gene and protein levels of an endogenous allosteric modulator of CHRNA7, secreted mammalian Ly-6/ urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor-related protein-1, and acetylcholine were significantly elevated in donor and burn margin skin. As downstream proteins of inflammatory and cell death targets of nAChR activation, we found significant elevations in epidermal High Mobility Group Box Protein 1 and caspase 3 in donor and burn margin skin. Lastly, we employed a novel in vitro keratinocyte burn model to establish that burn injury influences the gene expression of these cholinergic mediators and their downstream targets. These results indicate that defects in cholinergic mediators and inflammatory/apoptotic molecules in donor and burn margin skin may directly contribute to graft failure or infection in burn patients.

Surgical Management of a Case of Bilateral Auricular Keloids in an Adolescent Girl

The Keloid is a fibroproliferative anomaly of the cutaneous connective tissue secondary to dysregulation in the skin healing and repair process, occurring in susceptible individuals. It is characterized by excessive collagen and glycoprotein deposition in the dermis following any local irritation, inflammation, burn, incision or injury, thereby leading to a cosmetically unaesthetic, aberrant and exuberant scar formation extending well beyond the boundaries of the original wound. It usually presents as firm nodules, often pruritic and painful, which do not regress spontaneously. The condition presents quite a therapeutic challenge owing to its unpredictably aggressive nature, frequent invasion of adjacent normal dermis, occasional appearance of satellite lesions in nearby non-traumatized tissue and a remarkable tendency for recurrence following removal. Various combinations of Pressure therapy, intralesional steroid therapy and surgery have shown promising results in the treatment of auricular keloids. We report on a young Indian female, aged 19 years, who developed bilateral auricular keloids subsequent to earlobe piercing, which was successfully managed by careful and atraumatic surgical excision alone.

Pulmonary complications for predicting mortality among major burn victims

Objective The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of early and late pulmonary complications among major burn victims and to study their effects on patient's outcome. Background Respiratory complications associated with burn injury are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality. Patients and methods Forty-two patients with major burn with no past history of pulmonary diseases were enrolled in the study. All patients were subjected to medical history taking, general, local (respiratory and burn), and upper airway examination, laboratory investigations, plain chest radiograph, and serial arterial blood gases analysis (initially after admission and then after 48 and 72 h). Results Pulmonary complications developed in 29 of 42 (69%) burned patients. Eleven of 42 (26.2%) patients died; 10 (90.9%) of them died due to pulmonary complications and one (9.1%) patient died due to wound sepsis. Acute respiratory distress syndrome, inhalational injury, pneumonia, acute bronchitis, lung contusion, and hemothorax were early phase (within 48 h of admission) pulmonary complications, whereas pneumonia, lung collapse, and pulmonary embolism were late phase (after 48 h of admission) pulmonary complications. Lower serum albumin and more deep burn were independent risk factors for pulmonary complications, and pulmonary complications, decreased prothrombin time concentration, and lower serum albumin were independent risk factors for mortality in patients with major burns. Conclusion Lower serum albumin and more deep burns were independent risk factors for pulmonary complications, and pulmonary complications, decreased prothrombin time concentration, and lower serum albumin were independent risk factors for mortality in burned patients.

New ways of surgical treatment of an opisthenar burns

Objective is to improve outcomes of treatment of patients with opisthenar burns by optimizing the algorithm of care. Materials and methods: 272 victims with local deep opisthenar burns were analyzed. Results: the study showed an advantage of the method of early surgical treatment of opisthenar burns before the landmark treatment of these burns. Patients operated on by early necrectomy with plastic without perforations have the best immediate and long-term results of treatment. Conclusion: the use of active surgical tactics including the removal in the early period (1-3 days after injury) burn eschar with simultaneous plasty of wound non-perforated skin graft performed under tourniquet followed by the imposition of a pressure bandage is the method of choice. This approach helps prevent the development of rough scar contractures and deformities in the postoperative period and achieve good cosmetic results.

Little negligence leading to irreparable harm: thinner burns

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the epidemiology and outcome of paint thinner induced burn injuries at a local burn center. A retrospective analysis of 55 patient paint thinner thermal burn cases was conducted. Relevant patientsÂ’ data such as age, sex, etiologic factors, burn extent and localization, employed methods of treatment, hospitalization period, and results were evaluated in retrospect from patientsÂ’ records. 50 male and five female patients with a mean age of 26,78 (14-47) years participated in the presented study. Kindling fire with paint thinner was the most frequent etiologic factor. Total body surface burn area was 22,5 % (5-90). The mean hospitalization period of the survivors was 24 (5-64) days. Early excision and split-thickness sking grafting was applied in 22 patients. The remaining 26 patients were treated with topical agents. Total mortality was only 7 (12.7%). These patients had paint thinner induced burned body surfaces of 60 % with accompanying inhalation injuries. Paint thinner may cause catastrophic thermal injuries even with terminal outcomes and should therefore never used to kindle a fire.

Local Burn Injury Promotes Defects in the Epidermal Lipid and Antimicrobial Peptide Barriers in Human Autograft Skin and Burn Margin

Burn injury increases the risk of morbidity and mortality by promoting severe hemodynamic shock and risk for local or systemic infection. Graft failure due to poor wound healing or infection remains a significant problem for burn subjects. The mechanisms by which local burn injury compromises the epithelial antimicrobial barrier function in the burn margin, containing the elements necessary for healing of the burn site, and in distal unburned skin, which serves as potential donor tissue, are largely unknown. The objective of this study was to establish defects in epidermal barrier function in human donor skin and burn margin, to identify potential mechanisms that may lead to graft failure and/or impaired burn wound healing. In this study, we established that epidermal lipids and respective lipid synthesis enzymes were significantly reduced in both donor skin and burn margin. We further identified diverse changes in the gene expression and protein production of several candidate skin antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in both donor skin and burn margin. These results also parallel changes in cutaneous AMP activity against common burn wound pathogens, aberrant production of epidermal proteases known to regulate barrier permeability and AMP activity, and greater production of proinflammatory cytokines known to be induced by AMPs. These findings suggest that impaired epidermal lipid and AMP regulation could contribute to graft failure and infectious complications in subjects with burn or other traumatic injury.

Перспективы использования фитопрепарата на основе календулы лекарственной в комплексном лечении химического ожога пищевода

Currently worldwide chemical burns of the esophagus rank first among all diseases of the esophagus in children and second in adults. Because of commonly accepted algorithms of rendering of medical aid in case of chemical burns of the esophagus in the prehospital and hospital stages (washing of the esophagus and the stomach, adequate anesthesia, corticosteroid, antibiotic therapy, the group of antacids and symptomatic treatment), the choice of drug and method of local impact on the surface of chemical burn of the esophagus remain an urgent problem. The lack of standardized approach in treatment of local changes in chemical burns of the esophagus, severe and unsatisfactory results of using medication algorithms inspire a search for alternative methods of treatment and drug development. Herbal remedies are comparable in effectiveness, but also have the combined multivalent effect on the entire body, causing minimum of side effects. Basing on the literature review, we have come to a conclusion that the most balanced composition of biologically active substances and a positive influence on the basic pathogenesis of esophageal chemical burns has Calendula officinalis. Features and scope of Calendula officinalis are not fully understood. The creation of a multidrug for the local treatment chemical burns of the esophagus based on this herb proves to be very promising.

Potential of combination therapy of endolysin MR-10 and minocycline in treating MRSA induced systemic and localized burn wound infections in mice

MRSA is the predominant pathogen responsible for fatal burn wound infection in patients. Antibiotic resistance and its ability to form biofilms on the surface of burn wounds limit the use of antibiotics to contain this pathogen. The results of present study have shown that single dose of combination therapy of endolysin MR-10 (50μg/s.c) and minocycline (50mg/kg/orally) resulted in 100% survival of group of mice with systemic MRSA infection. Maximum reduction in bacterial load in various organs was observed in the group that received combination therapy. In comparison to control, a significant reduction (p<0.01) of 4.82, 1.81, 1.51, 1.2 logs was observed in skin, blood, liver and spleen respectively, by 3rd day post infection. As a result of which, all organs became sterile thereby protecting mice from mortality. Histopathological analysis corroborated our findings showing no signs of inflammation and bacterial infection in the group that received combination therapy. Treatment of localized burn wound infection with combination therapy resulted in early resolution of infection followed by fast healing. The group that received combination therapy showed complete resolution of infection in less than 10days. Moreover, the skin samples obtained from animals treated with combination therapy showed no myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity on 10th day post treatment. In combination therapy group, ∼98% wound contraction was observed by 12th day followed by complete closure of wound within ∼14days. The histopathological analysis showed no signs of inflammation and infection. Collagen staining revealed early signs of re-epithelization of epidermis and signs of collagen regeneration in-group that received combination therapy. Hence, this study suggests that the combined therapy of endolysin MR-10 and minocycline is a better option in controlling burn wound infections.

Synergistic vulnerabilities: climate variability and fire management policy increase farming challenges in southeastern Mexico

Agricultural fire for land preparation is central in the livelihoods of subsistence farmers practicing shifting cultivation. Achieving a good agricultural burn, one in which the biomass is thoroughly consumed within the chosen area, depends on specific weather conditions. Fire use decisions are also shaped by institutions that define the timing and rules for fire use but also constrain the alternatives and shape adaptive capacities. Global and regional climate changes interact with the institutional framing of fire management affecting local fire use and burn outcomes. These effects are documented and analyzed to suggest adaptations to existing governance systems. We examined subsistence farmers’ socio-ecological vulnerability in the Calakmul municipality, located in southeastern Mexico. Using interviews with farmers and government agents, as well as participatory mapping and observation of agricultural burns, we studied fire management knowledge, practices and burn outcomes. Our results describe a continuum of burn outcomes covering good agricultural burns, uncontrolled burns leading to wildfires and “malquemados” literally poorly burned areas. Malquemados represent unsuccessful combustion associated with excess moisture that results in scorched vegetation. We discuss how unexpected early rains trigger effects that cascade through space and the ecological, economic and cultural domains. We argue that fire management has been historically approached from a conservation standpoint yet agricultural fire use and wildfire prevention should also be addressed from a rural development perspective. This shift in fire management would lead to the proper inclusion of the entire array of burn outcomes in studies and policies addressing farmers’ vulnerability amplified by synergistic effects between climate variability and institutional change.

Ten pearls every dermatologist should know about the appropriate use of relaxers.

Chemical relaxers are products marketed to straighten the hair and have been principally used by African Americans since the early twentieth century. They contain alkaline agents that break and reform hydrogen and disulfide bonds, leaving hair permanently straightened. Relaxers cause loss of tensile strength and increased fragility of the hair shaft that lead to increased risk of hair breakage and thinning. When used improperly, they can also cause local irritant contact dermatitis and chemical burns to the scalp and hairline that can potentially lead to a scarring alopecia. After interviewing several cosmetology educators in the field and reviewing the literature, we generated a list of ten pearls that all dermatologists should know about relaxers to provide professional guidance to their patients.

District of Columbia Emergency Healthcare Coalition Burn Mass Casualty Plan: Development to Exercise Date.

The District of Columbia Emergency Healthcare Coalition (DC EHC) brought together a Burn Task Force to tackle the issue of mass burn care in a metropolitan area in light of limited local burn center resources. This article outlines the development of the mass burn care plan. Using a tiered treatment approach, mass burn victims would be transported first to burn centers within the area, followed by nonburn center trauma centers, and finally to nonburn and nontrauma center acute care facilities. Once activated the Burn Task Force would triage and coordinate transfer of mass burn patients within the District for further care at burn centers using a strong link with the Eastern Regional Burn Disaster Consortium. This plan was exercised in the spring of 2014 to test all of the components. To strengthen mass burn care, this plan, put in place for the District of Columbia, has been expanded to include the National Capital Region as well.

Biochemical mechanisms of skin radiation burns inhibition and healing by the volumetric autotransplantation of fibroblasts and of keratinocytes with fibroblasts composition

Mechanisms of influence of volumetric autotransplantation of fibroblasts and of the mixture of fibroblasts and keratinocytes on the development of the local 3rd degree X-ray burn and the radiation skin ulcer in guinea pigs were investigated. We used deepadministration into the irradiation zone on its perimeter of 6 doses, which contained (150–160)×103 fibroblasts and (130–140)×103 keratinocytes in 100 µl. It is shown that this autotransplantation carried out 1 hour after the irradiation, and then every 24 hours, reduces the area of burn on the 35th day, compared to the control by 63%. Radiation ulcer appears on the 10th day after irradiation and is completely healed on the 25th day. With the same regimen of administration of only fibroblasts containing (200–210)×103 cells in 100 µl, these parameters of treatment were equal to 31% on 4th and 35th day, respectively. It is shown that as a result of radiation in the area of burn the level of gene expression of collagen types I and III, elastin, fibronectin, vinculin, decorin, hyaluronansynthases 1, 2, 3, matrix metalloproteinases 1, 2, 3, 7, 9 and hyaluronidase is reduced. Besides, in the burn area the level of gene expression of transforming growth factor α, fibroblast growth factors 1, 2, 8 and anti-inflammatory cytokines – interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor-β1 – is reduced, while the level of gene expression of proinflammatory cytokine (interleykin1β) increases. Both types of autotransplantation cause the growth of the expression level of all the structural genes and regulatory proteins of biopolymers and decrease in the expression level of interleukin 1β, which leads to activation of tissue regeneration and healing of the burn wound. Reasonsfor the higher efficiency of autotransplantation using the mixture of fibroblasts and keratinocytes compared to autotransplantation by fibroblasts only are both the larger total number of live cells regularly replacing dead cells in the burn area, and mutual stimulation of auto-fibroblasts and auto-keratinocytes to proliferate and to synthesize biologically active substances, i.e. cytokines and growth factors.

Butane Hash Oil Burns Associated with Marijuana Liberalization in Colorado.

Butane hash oil (BHO), also known as "amber," "dab," "glass," "honey," "shatter," or "wax," is a potent marijuana concentrate, containing up to 90 % tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). BHO is easily manufactured using highly volatile butane as a solvent. Our objective was to characterize hydrocarbon burns associated with BHO manufacture in Colorado. This was a cross-sectional study utilizing the National Burn Repository to capture all hydrocarbon burns reported to the local burn center from January 1st, 2008, through August 31st, 2014. We abstracted demographic and clinical variables from medical records for patients admitted for hydrocarbon burns associated with butane hash oil extraction. Twenty-nine cases of BHO burns were admitted to the local burn center during the study period. Zero cases presented prior to medical liberalization, 19 (61.3 %) during medical liberalization (Oct 2009-Dec 2013), and 12 (38.7 %) in 2014 since legalization. The majority of cases were Caucasian (72.4 %) males (89.7 %). Median age was 26 (range 15-58). The median total-body-surface-area (TBSA) burn size was 10 % (TBSA range 1-90 %). Median length of hospital admission was 10 days. Six required intubation for airway protection (21 %). Nineteen required skin grafting, eight wound care only, one required surgical fracture repair, and one required surgical debridement. Hydrocarbon burns associated with hash oil production have increased since the liberalization of marijuana policy in Colorado. A combination of public health messaging, standardization of manufacturing processes, and worker safety regulations are needed to decrease the risks associated with BHO production.

1064-nm Nd: YAG laser-assisted cartilage reshaping for treating ear protrusions.

Correction of prominent ears is a common plastic surgical procedure. The laser-assisted cartilage reshaping (LACR) technique for protruding ears was developed at the French National Institute of Health and Medical Research in Lille, France, using both the 1064- and 1540-nm wavelengths, with a view to simplifying the surgical procedure. Herein we report our results with the 1064-nm wavelength. Between 2008 and 2010, twenty-six 1064-nm LACR procedures in 14 patients were performed. Twelve patients received treatment to both ears, and 2 patients received treatment to one ear. Each procedure consisted of a single treatment session. The treatment consisted of laser irradiation of both sides of the helix with single pulses of 70 J/cm2. The beam diameter was 6 mm. Early and late complications were defined and reviewed for all patients. Satisfaction was assessed by patients using a visual analogue scale from 0 (unsatisfied) to 20 (highly satisfied). The superior and middle cephaloauricular distances were prospectively evaluated at 6 months after treatment. Complications included eight cases of localized skin burns and one case of dermatitis. The mean right/left superior and middle cephaloauricular distances were 10.5±1.5 mm/10.7±1.0 mm and 16.3±2.2 mm/16.3±2.8 mm, respectively, as compared to 17.5±2.9 mm/18.6±2.5 mm (P<0.01) and 24.5±2.6 mm/24.7±1.7 mm (P<0.01) before the operation. Mean patient satisfaction was 16.8/20±3.3. Despite promising results for cartilage reshaping, the 1064-nm LACR procedure often leads to skin burns and inflammatory tissue reaction after treatment. Moreover, LACR with the 1064-nm wavelength is painful and necessitates local anaesthesia. 4.

Third-degree hindpaw burn injury induced apoptosis of lumbar spinal cord ventral horn motor neurons and sciatic nerve and muscle atrophy in rats.

Background. Severe burns result in hypercatabolic state and concomitant muscle atrophy that persists for several months, thereby limiting patient recovery. However, the effects of burns on the corresponding spinal dermatome remain unknown. This study aimed to investigate whether burns induce apoptosis of spinal cord ventral horn motor neurons (VHMNs) and consequently cause skeletal muscle wasting. Methods. Third-degree hindpaw burn injury with 1% total body surface area (TBSA) rats were euthanized 4 and 8 weeks after burn injury. The apoptosis profiles in the ventral horns of the lumbar spinal cords, sciatic nerves, and gastrocnemius muscles were examined. The Schwann cells in the sciatic nerve were marked with S100. The gastrocnemius muscles were harvested to measure the denervation atrophy. Result. The VHMNs apoptosis in the spinal cord was observed after inducing third-degree burns in the hindpaw. The S100 and TUNEL double-positive cells in the sciatic nerve increased significantly after the burn injury. Gastrocnemius muscle apoptosis and denervation atrophy area increased significantly after the burn injury. Conclusion. Local hindpaw burn induces apoptosis in VHMNs and Schwann cells in sciatic nerve, which causes corresponding gastrocnemius muscle denervation atrophy. Our results provided an animal model to evaluate burn-induced muscle wasting, and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Increased wound pH as an indicator of local wound infection in second degree burns

Wound pH affects a number of important factors in wound healing. It is known that the pH of the skin surface of healthy adults and children is 4.2–5.6 and that it decreases with the lapse of epithelialization. We measured the pH of the exudates from second degree burns in 26 cases. Among these, local burn wound infection developed in 6 cases. The causative organisms were Staphylococcus aureus in 2 cases and Staphylococcus epidermidis in 4 cases. The maximum pH value measured was 10.0 and the minimum was 5.0 for all samples. There were no differences in the initial measurements of pH between the non-infected cases and the local-infected cases. In cases of local infection, the pH rose prior to the onset of clinical signs of local burn infection. By consecutive measurement of pH, early detection of local wound infection can be achieved and this is very beneficial in clinical practice. Moreover, measurement is very easy and results are available immediately. In conclusion, consecutive pH measurement of exudates is considered to be a useful indicator in the treatment of second degree burns.

Status of the spent fuel in the reactor buildings of Fukushima Daiichi 1–4

The ratios of the radionuclides Cs-134g and Cs-137 deduced from measurements of liquid samples from the spent fuel pools in Fukushima Daiichi 1–4 are used to interpret the status of the spent fuel assemblies in the pools of the damaged reactor buildings. The different natures of the production of Cs-134g (neutron capture product of Cs-133) and Cs-137 (cumulative fission product from mass chain 137) and the different half-lives (2.06 years and 30.17 years respectively) require a complicated calculation of the mass and activity of the two nuclides. These masses are depending on the local burn up of the fuel, the burn up history and the radioactive decay. Calculation of the neutron capture product Cs-134g is particularly complicated, because the production of Cs-133 (stable cumulative fission product from mass chain 133) has to be taken into account. The neutron capture cross section for Cs-133 for thermal neutrons is well known, but the energy spectrum of the neutrons in a reactor includes higher energies according to the degree of moderation. Therefore the cross section was fitted from a gamma scan of spent fuel rods in a hot cell. The method of the calculation of the nuclide activities and the interpretation of the gamma measurements of the spent fuel pool samples from Fukushima Daiichi 1–4 are described in detail. It could be shown that at most only very minor mechanical damage of some spent fuel elements occurred during the accident and the later phase of the clearing work.