Loan Verbs Research Articles

Phonological Analysis of Syllabic Changes of Arabic Loan Verbs

The original form of a language is often changed when the language is borrowed into the target language. In Malay, one of the changes that can be observed is the reduction of syllable segments. The change results from integrating and adapting the source language to the target language for native-like adaptation. Therefore, this study investigates the reduction of syllable segments and phonological changes of syllable segments in Arabic loan verbs. The reduction of syllable segments refers to a segmental reduction in the first, second or third syllable. The phonological change of the syllable segment refers to the sound change that occurs when the syllable segment is reduced. This study uses Arabic loan verbs in Kamus Dewan Perdana as research data. The collected data was transcribed and 30 Arabic loanwords were found to have syllable segment reduction. The data is then analysed using the theory of sound change to determine the phonological changes that occur in the syllable segments in the Arabic loanwords. The study results show that there are 3 types of segmental reduction located in the first syllable, 26 verbs in the second syllable and 3 verbs in the third syllable. In addition, the study's results also show that phonological changes for syllable segments in Arabic loanwords occur through vowel adaptation, neutralization and scramble. These changes generally take the form of vowel adjustments that shorten the vowel sound of the original Arabic spelling, which accounts for most of the sound changes in syllable segment reduction.

An Analysis of Lukabaras Borrowed Verbs from English

English as an official language, has come in contact with indigenous languages in Kenya. English has therefore become one of the major donors of loanwords to these indigenous languages, Lukabaras being one of the beneficiaries. This study investigated the morpho-phonological constraints that English loan verbs encounter when adapting into Lukabaras. The research utilized Lukabaras native speakers as respondents to elicit data. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select a sample of 15 English loan verbs, which were then analyzed descriptively based on the tenets of Optimality Theory which states that constraints are universal and are fixed in their ranking and apply to all languages. The loan verbs were transcribed, and the study first analyzed the morphological constraints, followed by the phonological constraints. The findings reveal that English and Lukabaras have different morphological and phonological structures, leading to modifications of English loan verbs to fit the morphological and phonological patterns of Lukabaras. Additionally, the study identifies specific morpho-phonological constraints affecting the adaptation of English loan verbs into Lukabaras, including NOCODA, COMPLEX C, MAX IO, ONSET, DEP IO, IDENT IO, DEP-PREF, DEP-SUFFIX, and ALIGN left edge. Furthermore, faithful constraints are ranked higher than markedness constraints in Lukabaras. The study’s findings contribute to the understanding of morpho-phonological adaptation processes in language contact scenarios. Overall, the study’s findings align with the theoretical framework provided by OT, illustrating how languages manage the integration of foreign elements through a balance of faithfulness and markedness constraints. These findings not only enhance the understanding of loanword adaptation in Lukabaras but also contribute to the broader field of language contact and borrowing, providing a detailed case study of how specific constraints operate in a real-world linguistic context.

Derivation of Verbs from Loanwords in Arabic According to Arabic Derivational Paradigms

A sample of 186 loanwords with derived verbs in Arabic was collected and analyzed to explore how these verbs are derived from loanwords; part of speech of the derivable source loanwords; which derivational verb patterns are followed; why verbs are derivable from some loanwords but not from others; and the constraints imposed on the derivation of verbs from loanwords. Data analysis revealed that some loan verbs remain as they are when borrowed in Arabic (comment, update). In 41%, the derived verbs in Arabic are an Arabization of the verbs in the doner language. In 59%, Arabic speakers derive a verb from loan nouns for which no derived verbs exist in the doner (source) language. In 12% of the loanwords, two verbs are derived which follow adifferent derivational patterns, with a different meaning and transitivity. The derived verbs in the sample follow nine Arabic derivational patterns regardless of the source language. A root consisting of 3, 4 or 5 consonants is extracted from the loan word, with vowels added in between. 82% follow five quadri-consonantal paradigms and 16% follow three quinque-consonantal paradigms. The most productive paradigm is فعلل /fa؟lal/ CVCCVC (Afghanize > أفغن/?afɣan/ (VT, make Afghani in character or nationality); Amalgamate > ملغم /malɣam/; Americanize > أمرك /?amrak/ (46%). The second most productive paradigm is فعّل /fa؟؟al/ CVCCVC (19%) as in Gypsum> جبّس/dʒabbas/ (VT); hacker> هكر /hakkar/ (VT); hang>هنج /hannag/ (VI); Latinize>لتن /lattan/ (VT). The quinque-consonantal paradigms تفعلل /tafa؟lal/ CVCVCVC is used in 9% of the loanwords as in democratize > دمقرط/damaqraT/ (VT). The tri-consonantal paradigm is the least productive (2%) as in Ekleipsis (Gr) eclipse>كسف /kasafa/ (VI). All derived verbs herein conform to the Arabic phonotactic and morphotactic systems and are frequently used in daily speech. The same strategies for creating augmented verbs are used in all native but many loanwords. Verb derivation from nouns as countries is feasible but not used, and for others, it is not possible and is counter intuitive to extract consonants to form a root. Recommendations for the creation of a loanwords dictionary and a Arabic derivations’ dictionary are given.

Глаголы-англицизмы в русском языке XIXв.

The presented research shows the benefits of using diachronic approach in studying the process of borrowing, revealing its characteristic features and main tendencies in the certain period of language development. The work was carried out to identify a group of English loan verbs in the Russian language of the 19thcentury, to assess their quantitative and thematic composition, to consider the peculiarities of their adaptation. On the basis of historical and lexicological research and the developed criteria, nine verbs belonging to the sphere of sport, technology, social and political sphere were identified, whichis much less than the number of verbs borrowed at this time from French and German. The difficulty of determining the source language, the ways of entry of foreign-language verbs, and the separation of borrowings from word formations in Russian makes it necessary to use corpus linguistic methods and careful work with multi-genre sources, which is illustrated by the example of the verbs tatuirovat` (to tattoo) and startovat`(to start). The historical and lexicological data presented in the article made it possible to clarify the time ofoccurrence of English loan verbs and to define their first lexicographic fixation. The paper shows the competition of suffixes in the formation of borrowed verbs, leading to a wide variability, with the suffix -irova-proving to be the most productive in the formation of normative variants of English loan verbs.

Verb Borrowing: The Integration of English Loan Verbs in Yemeni Arabic

This study aims to examine the extent to which English loan verbs are incorporated in Yemeni Arabic (YA) and how they are integrated into the morphosyntactic system of the dialect. About seventy borrowed verbs were collected from different oral and written sources including local TV series and plays, YouTube videos, and followers’ comments on social media. The data analysis drew on Wohlgemuth’s (2009) model of verbal borrowing typology. It was found that YA employs three main strategies in accommodating English loan verbs: 1) direct insertion with root reduction, 2) light verb strategy, and 3) derivative loan verbs. Direct insertion without root reduction is rarely used. While loan verb derivatives represented a non-patterned strategy in Wohlgemuth’s framework, light verb strategy was the most frequent, occurring in 50% of the data. The findings serve as evidence that foreign verbs can be directly borrowed in YA, and the recent verbs borrowed from the IT domain provide much more insight into the various strategies of loan verb integration in the dialect. Keywords: Loan Verbs, Integration Strategies, Verbal Borrowing, Yemeni Arabic, English

Spanish loan verbs in Paraguayan Guaraní: coexistence, replacement, or both?

Abstract Contact linguists have proposed that core borrowing can indicate language attrition – as the loan replaces its native-origin counterpart – while cultural borrowing expands the lexicon (Campbell, Lyle. 2013. Historical linguistics: An introduction, 3rd edn. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; Muysken, Pieter. 2000. Bilingual speech: A typology of code-mixing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). However, Tadmor and Haspelmath (Tadmor, Uri & Martin Haspelmath. 2009. Loanwords in the world’s languages: A comparative handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter) found that in core borrowing cases, coexistence of the foreign and the native forms is more common than replacement. In this paper, I explore coexistence and replacement scenarios of Spanish-origin core loan verbs and their native-origin counterparts in Paraguayan Guaraní. These loans have been previously described as instances of code-switching (Estigarribia, Bruno. 2017. Insertion and backflagging as mixing strategies underlying Guaraní-Spanish mixed words. In Bruno Estigarribia & Justin Pinta (eds.), Guaraní linguistics in the 21st century, 315–347. Leiden: Brill; Kallfell, Guido. 2016. ¿Cómo hablan los paraguayos con dos lenguas?: gramática del jopara. Asunción: CEADUC). Tokens of highly frequent native-origin verbs along with their broadly equivalent Spanish-origin loans were extracted from 40 interviews and were correlated with the senses of each verb. Results show that some Spanish verb loans replace its native-origin counterpart to convey only one of its senses, while the native-origin form remains the preferred form to convey the other senses. This specialized use also suggests that these semantically specialized Spanish verb loans are not code-switches but rather integrated lexical items in Guaraní.

Linguistic Repertoires: Modeling Variation in Input and Production: A Case Study on American Speakers of Heritage Norwegian

Heritage Norwegian in the American Midwest is documented through a corpus of recordings collected and compiled over a time span of 80 years, from Einar Haugen’s recordings in the 1940s via the CANS corpus up to the present-day in the authors’ own recordings. This gives an unprecedented opportunity to study how a minority language changes in a language contact situation, over several generations and under gradually changing circumstances. Since we also have thorough historical knowledge of the institutions and societal texture of these communities, this privileged situation allows us to trace the various sources of input available to the heritage speakers in these communities in different relevant time slots. We investigate how the quality and quantity of input at different times are reflected in the syntactic production of heritage speakers of the corresponding generational cohorts, focusing on relative ratios of specific word orders (topicalization and verb second, prenominal and postnominal possessive noun phrases) and productive morphosyntactic paradigms (tense suffixes of loan verbs). Utilizing a model of relations between input and output, receptive and productive competence, to show how input–output effects will accumulate throughout the cohorts, we explain the observed linguistic change in individuals and society.

Predicative and markedness bias in loan adjectives

Previous research on loan word accommodation has shown that English‑origin verbs in Present‑day Dutch and French‑origin verbs in Late Middle English are subject to usage biases. In both language‑contact settings, loan verbs are disproportionally frequent in non‑finite and morphologically unmarked forms as compared to native verbs. The present study demonstrates that accommodation biases are also found in loan adjectives. Concretely, loan adjectives are more prevalent in predicative than in attributive syntactic position as compared to native adjectives (predicative bias), and they are more prevalent in uninflected than in inflected forms (markedness bias). The predicative bias is found to rank stronger than the markedness bias, which is consistent with the findings for verbs. Additionally, biases are more pronounced in the French‑Middle English than in the English‑Dutch contact setting. The findings indicate that direct insertion of loan-words, despite being the cross-linguistically most frequent strategy for loan word integration, is not free of obstacles, possibly due to processing costs specifically associated with loan words.

MORPHO-PHONEMIC ADAPTATION OF ENGLISH LOAN VERBS IN LUKABARAS

English as an official language in Kenya has apparently influenced the Kenyan indigenous languages. Since it is the language of formal instruction in schools and other institutions, a large number of loan words have been integrated in the local languages. This paper thus investigated the adaptation of English loan verbs in Lukabaras which is one of the ethnic languages spoken in the Western region of Kenya. The study endeavoured to describe the morphological and phonological constraints evident in the integration of these items in Lukabaras. A sample of 20 lexical items was picked through purposive sampling technique and analysed descriptively. The study established that English verbs are incorporated in Lukabaras through the prefix {okhu-} and the verbal radical suffix {a}. It was further observed that in the process of integration the verbs are subject to phonological conditions such as consonant devoicing, vowel insertion, gliding and vowel reduction.

Loan Word Accommodation Biases: Markedness and Finiteness

Abstract One way or another, loan words have to be grammatically integrated in the grammar of their recipient language. For verbs, Wohlgemuth (2009) finds that direct insertion, where native inflections are added directly onto the borrowed stem, is cross‐linguistically the most frequent accommodation strategy. He concludes from this that the borrowing of loan verbs is not constrained by inflection. Based on a two‐fold corpus study on the integration of English loan verbs in Present‐day Dutch and French loan verbs in Late Middle English, we propose a correction to Wohlgemuth's (2009) argument. Even under direct insertion, loan verbs are subject to constraints, as they enter some usage categories more readily than others. More specifically, we find evidence for loan verbs being avoided in finite forms and in morphologically marked forms. We refer to these joint tendencies as accommodation biases. The specific nature of accommodation biases in loan verbs suggests that loan verbs are underrepresented in those categories where they carry a dense functional load as markers of both lexical and grammatical information.

Syntactic adaptation of Spanish loan verbs in San Pablo Güilá Zapotec into auxiliary verb construction

El zapoteco de San Pablo Güilá, de manera similar a otras lenguas zapotecas, acomoda préstamos verbales del español en construcciones complejas formadas por un verbo nativo auxiliar (ùn ~ è›n? ‘hacer’ o àk ‘hacerse’), seguido del sujeto y un verbo léxico de origen hispano desprovisto de morfología flexiva. Para justificar dicho análisis, en este trabajo, en su parte central, describimos aspectos morfosintácticos de los préstamos verbales y de los verbos nativos con los que concurren, tales como sus posibilidades flexivas (verbales y nominales) y su estatus oracional (según la posición relativa de constituyentes en la oración, la posibilidad de anteposición y la concurrencia con un “segundo” objeto). Asimismo, mostramos evidencia de que la elección de un verbo auxiliar u otro es independiente del préstamo verbal al que acompañe y que está relacionada con la voz de la cláusula: ùn para oraciones activas con sujetos agentivos, y àk para oraciones inactivas con sujetos pacientes. Así, en este trabajo mostramos que las construcciones se expresan en una estructura de VERBO AUXILIAR NATIVO + SUJETO + VERBO LÉXICO PRÉSTAMO (+OBJETO), en la que el préstamo tiene categoría verbal.

Μορφολογική προσαρμογή των επιθέτων στα βόρεια ιδιώματα

It is well known that there is no comprehensive proposal for the description of morphological adaptation of adjectives cross-linguistically. The most complete description is the one suggested by Tzitzilis (Introduction) who, relying to some extent on the typology of morphological adaptation of loan verbs (Wohlgemuth 2009) describes the strategies of adjectival adaptation. When examining the morphological adaptation of adjectival borrowings it is not enough to refer to their assignment to a certain inflection class but it is necessary to consider their assignment to a specific “morphological bundle” of adjectives.

Verbs and Grammatical Idioms of Turkish Origin in the Epic Song the Wedding of Smailagić Meho by Avdo Međedović

This paper examines Turcisms, specifically verbs and grammatical idioms, in the epic “The wedding of Smailagić Meho” by Avdo Međedović. The analysis is aimed at identifying and exploring Turkish loan verbs and grammatical idioms in the epic, as well as establishing whether there are some examples of these Turcisms characteristics of the poetic voice-poet Međedović himself to be noted. In this paper, the analytic-synthetic and comparative methods of analysis were employed as the analytic tools. The verbs were categorized into two categories, based on their formation. The first group comprises the verbs with a Turkish infinitival or perfective root and the suffix -isati, while the second group comprises the verbs formed from Turkish nouns and the suffix -ati, -ovati, -iti. The structures treated as grammatical idioms in this paper contain either a Turkish noun or (rarely) an adjective and some Bosnian verb. Based on their formation, these structures correspond to Turkish complex verbs. The analysis results indicate that there is an abundance of grammatical idioms in the examined epic, many of which, however, are characteristics of the author himself.

How Recently Borrowed Verbs in Russian Form Perfective Aspect — an Experimental Approach

This article examines how Russian aspectual pairs from borrowed and colloquial verbs are formed. This question is relevant since the most common source languages of Russian loan verbs do not express the aspectual distinction (imperfective-perfective) morphologically. Seventeen new verbs, most of which belong to the technological sphere, were examined in an online experiment (N=120), in which native Russian speakers were asked to form perfective counterparts for a number of new verbs, such as гуглить ‘to google’ and эсэмэсить ‘to text, to SMS’. The results show that there is variation in the formation of these new verbs, but also that one form was chosen by most participants who formed a valid perfective. The most common perfectivizers in this experiment were the suffix -ну-, followed by the prefixes за-, про-, от- and с-. The suffix -ну- is especially productive in verbs denoting actions that can be carried out or finished in a short time but is also found in verbs denoting longer processes. This use of -ну- is characteristic for verbs in Russian slang.

Good nouns, naughty verbs: How French borrowings receive grammatical tones in Guinean Kpelle

The paper discusses how modern French loan nouns and verbs are morphophonologically adapted into Guinean Kpelle (Southwestern Mande), with a special focus on tone. To date, studies of prosodic loanword adaption from stress to tone languages have mainly focused on lexical tone assignment, largely neglecting other phenomena. This study contributes to the discussion by describing primary tone assignment of French loanwords in Guinean Kpelle, and, crucially, by exploring how loan words behave with respect to other complex morphophonological phenomena, mainly, prefixal and replacive grammatical tones, consonant alternations, and surface tone rules. My data suggest that loan nouns perfectly follow native Guinean Kpelle rules, whereas loan verbs have a distinct replacive {HL} morphological marker corresponding to {L} in native verbs. Distinct prosodic marking of loan verbs in Guinean Kpelle broadens our understanding of loanword typology, as well as of grammatical tone.

Префикс за- в сочетании с заимствованными глаголами в русском языке

This article provides some observations on how the Russian prefix za- functions in relation to loan verbs. Out of 270 unprefixed loan verbs, 241 verbs with the prefix zawere attested and analyzed. Such a high activity (89.2%) of the prefix can be explained by its wide polysemy. Among the high frequency verbs, the prefix demonstrates its perfectivizing function when its spatial semantics correlate with that of the base-verb or implicate it. For the rest of the za-verbs, although less frequently used, inchoative and intensive semantics are observed. However, while inchoative semantics are recognized only among the verbs of certain semantic groups, intensive semantics are distributed more widely. Among loan verbs, several verbs denote the process of assigning some features to the object, and therefore suggest the degree of intensity of the action and productively connect to the verbs. On the other hand, among loan verbs, there are not many verbs that designate physical actions and are subjected to various spatial modifications. Spatial modification per se is not a characteristic of the prefixation of loan verbs.

I prefissi verbali dal latino classico all'italiano: problemi di classificazione su base etimologica Il prefisso ad-

Summary:I examine verbal prefixation analyzing the functional changes of the Latin ad- prefix from Classical Latin to Italian. In order to conduct the research properly I needed to separate the verbs in ety- mological groups directly derived from Latin (Classical, Vulgar or Late Latin) from the verbs created in the Romance period and the Latin loan verbs. The different origin of the verbs influences our expectation regarding the analyzability of a given verb (the recognisability of the prefix as an independent element and its semantic value - which can be different from that of its Latin origin). This division is not as clear cut as it seems to be, because, in the case of the Italian, phonetic evidence in favour of one group or another is often missing. I present the possible solutions I found for the grouping problems using semantic evidence, comparison with the other Romance languages, dating of the given verb, etc. Furthermore, I highlight the general and specific factors which determine the assignment of a certain verb to a certain group in order to obtain a precise but still flexible set of verbal categories.

How Contact with French Drove Patient‐Lability in English

AbstractThis paper examines whether the argument structure of English verbs of change of state/location was influenced by contact. Scandinavian as a source of influence is rejected for not having had suitable properties. In Old French, including its insular variety, Anglo‐Norman, verbs of change of state/location were labile in the late 13th and 14th c., the period of contact via intense bilingualism. It is proposed that contact with Old French provided models for the generalisation of lability across these English verb classes. Using standard lexicographical resources, change‐of‐state/location verbs are shown to display a great expansion of lability after Old English, reaching a level of 75 per cent attestation of such verbs as labile by 15th c. Middle English. This outcome is taken to be an effect on English of the later medieval bilingual contact situation in England, where French was increasingly used by bilingual speakers, who replicated in English the argument realisations of French verbs expressing change‐of‐state/location concepts. The effect was particularly strong with French loan verbs, where contact influence involved borrowing not only forms and their semantic denotation, but also the borrowed verb's argument structure; lability also increased very markedly with native verbs.

Slavic-root verbs in CP: loanwords and problematic cases

Although being a comparatively small-volume source, the Catechism of Merkelis Petkevičius (CP) discloses the complexity of analysing Lithuanian loan verbs and Slavic-root hybrids. Conducting research on loanwords from the Slavic languages, the main focus is usually laid on nominal words. The key rule applied while analysing the verbs of Slavic origin is based on the compliance between the distinguished suffixes in the analysed words and the suffixes characteristic of the Slavic languages. However, Slavic-root loanwords are also found, the suffixes of which do not have any equivalents in the Slavic languages. Traditionally such verbs are assigned to hybrids but they may be of two types. The Slavic-root verbs were selected from CP, which contributed to revealing the problems encountered while analysing them. The majority of Slavic-root verbs in the CP are attributed to regular loanwords, which are also reflected in the adjacent text in Polish. Several words fall under the category of problematic Slavic-root verbs. The suggested division of hybrids into derivational and adaptational ones is determined by several principles. The hybrid, when a Slavic-root verb does not have precise suffix equivalents and due to the objective reasons cannot be seen as a loanword (there is no word in the Lithuanian language, which can serve as a derivational base word), is regarded to be an adaptational one, i.e., its morphological component that formally complies with the suffix, underwent changes in the process of integration but modifications in the meaning are rarely identified in such cases (liecavoti, -avoja, -vojo CP 217,23). Derivational hybrids are the verbs, which have a word of common root in the recipient language and the derivational link can be envisaged between them (prarakauti, -auja, -avo CP 160,17, pasnykauti, -auja, -avo CP 88,25). Such hybrids are more frequently based on the meanings of base word and this may lead to some differences in the meanings of respective root verbs in the Slavic languages.

Language-Specific Transitivities in Contact: The Case of Coptic

This paper sketches the integration of Greek-origin loan verbs into the valency and transitivity patterns of Coptic (Afroasiatic, Egypt), arguing that transitivities are language-specific descriptive categories, and the comparison of donor-language transitivity with target-language transitivity reveals fine-grained degrees of loan-verb integration. Based on a comparison of Coptic Transitivity and Greek Transitivity, it is shown that Greek-origin loanwords are only partially integrated into the transitivity patterns of Coptic. Specifically, while Greek-origin loan verbs have the same coding properties as native verbs in terms of the A domain, i.e., Differential Subject Marking (dsm), they differ in important respects in terms of the P domain, i.e., Differential Object Marking (dom) and Differential Object Indexing (doi). A main result of this study is that language contact – specifically, massive lexical borrowing – can induce significant transitivity splits in a language’s lexicon and grammar. Furthermore, the findings of this study cast doubt on the usefulness of an overarching cross-linguistic category of transitivity.