Load Conditions Research Articles

Elastic–plastic solutions of reserved deformation for soft rock circular tunnel under high stress

The determination of reserved deformation is typically based on referring to relevant codes or the engineering analogy method, lacking a certain theoretical approach. The purpose of this study is to provide a theoretical basis for determining reserved deformation and to analyze the variation law of the surrounding rock affected by reserved deformation. Considering the reserved deformation under the condition of asymmetric load, the expression of optimal reserved deformation, the expression of support resistance reflecting the strength of surrounding rock, the strength of support material and the magnitude of in situ stress, the displacement expression of surrounding rock are derived by approximate solution based on the classical elastic–plastic theory. Numerical simulation software is used to simulate the displacement expression of the surrounding rock considering the reserved deformation and the expression of the optimum reserved deformation under the condition of asymmetric load. The results of the numerical simulation were compared with those of the analytical solutions, and the analytical results show that the errors between the two are within 12% and that the consistency is good.

Performance analysis of biodiesel derived from pork fat of swill and concentrate-fed pigs

With the escalating demand for sustainable energy solutions, unconventional sources are gaining attention, including the utilisation of pork fat for biodiesel production. This study investigates the influence of different pig feeding systems, namely swill and concentrate, on the characteristics and performance of biodiesel derived from pork oil. Twelve Large White Yorkshire piglets were divided into two treatments: one following standard feeding practices (T1), and the other exclusively fed with swill (T2). The pigs were slaughtered, and their fat was processed into biodiesel through transesterification. The fuel properties of the biodiesel were analysed, including kinematic viscosity, flash point, fire point, gross calorific value, and low-temperature fuel properties. Additionally, engine performance and exhaust emissions of a biodiesel blend (B20) derived from pork oil were evaluated and compared to commercial diesel fuel using a Kirloskar single-cylinder diesel engine connected to an eddy current dynamometer. Results indicate that both T1 and T2 B20 biodiesel exhibit favourable characteristics comparable to diesel, with promising fuel density, injection duration, mass flow rate, brake-specific fuel consumption, and brake thermal efficiency across various load conditions. Moreover, critical factors such as cetane number and gross calorific value suggest suitable ignition qualities and energy content, highlighting the potential of pork oil-derived biodiesel as a sustainable alternative fuel source. Keywords: Biodiesel, pork fat, swill, concentrate feeding systems

Adaptive Reactive Power Management with Thyristor-Controlled Transformer and Fixed Capacitor

The objective of this article is to develop and analyse a thyristor-controlled transformer with a fixed capacitor for reactive power compensation in power systems. Reactive power compensation is crucial for enhancing the efficiency and stability of power systems by reducing power losses, improving voltage profiles, and minimizing equipment stress. Traditional compensation methods often rely on fixed capacitors, reactors, or static VAR compensators, but these systems lack the flexibility required for dynamic control of reactive power under varying load conditions. The proposed approach integrates a thyristor-controlled transformer with fixed capacitors, allowing for precise, real-time adjustment of reactive power flow. The novelty of this article lies in the hybrid configuration of the thyristor-controlled transformer and fixed capacitor, which provides a cost-effective and robust solution compared to conventional systems. Unlike traditional methods that depend solely on switching capacitors or reactors, the use of thyristors allows for fine-tuning of reactive power, offering improved performance under variable loading conditions without the need for complex control algorithms. This setup enhances the adaptability of reactive power management, thus maintaining optimal power factor and voltage regulation. The findings from the simulation and experimental results demonstrate significant improvements in power factor correction, voltage stabilization, and reduction in harmonic distortion. The proposed system exhibits a faster response time and greater control accuracy compared to existing compensation techniques. These advantages make the thyristor-controlled transformer with a fixed capacitor a promising alternative for power utilities seeking to enhance the operational efficiency and reliability of their networks. This article contributes to the advancement of reactive power compensation technologies, providing a scalable solution suitable for modern power system.

Environmental impacts of mechanically stabilised earth walls

Mechanically stabilised earth (MSE) walls have gained widespread popularity in North America because of their cost-effectiveness and reliable performance. Although the use of carbon-intensive materials for MSE walls is significantly lower compared to conventional retaining walls like concrete gravity walls and cantilever walls, heavy earthwork and transportation activities are involved in the construction of MSE walls, which increase their carbon footprint. The intensity of construction and transportation activities need particular attention because these are heavily reliant on the combustion of fossil fuels. In this study, the environmental impacts of MSE walls, reinforced by two common types – steel strips and geogrid – are quantified using life cycle assessment (LCA). A parametric study is conducted to investigate the effects of (i) soil properties, (ii) material properties of reinforcement, (iii) applied load, (iv) design parameters, and (v) hauling distances of materials on the global warming impact of MSE walls. Based on the study, reference charts are developed for the purpose of quick estimation of global warming impact of MSE walls based on design dimensions, applied load, and site conditions.

First evidence of age-dependent decreases in non-persistent pesticide mixtures in nestlings of a farmland raptor

Intensive use of synthetic pesticides in conventional agriculture may harm non-target organisms through sublethal effects on life-history traits. Farmland birds are exposed throughout their life cycle, but the fate of non-persistent pesticide mixtures in wild birds remains unknown. In this study, we investigated changes in pesticide contamination levels in Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) nestlings during their growth. In total, 35 chicks were sampled twice during the rearing period, and blood was tested for 116 pesticides to assess pesticide load through two proxies; the number of pesticides detected and the sum of pesticide concentrations. Body mass and tarsus length were also measured to estimate body condition. Across the two sampling times, nine herbicides, five insecticides and four fungicides were detected. Contamination levels decreased significantly with nestling age irrespective of sampling date, and there was no relationship between pesticide load and body condition. Moreover, concentrations of chlorpyrifos-methyl, fenpropidin, metamitron, picloram and S-metolachlor, all detected throughout the rearing period, were unrelated to any of the explanatory variables. However, ethofumesate concentrations decreased significantly with chick age. This study provides the first evidence that non-persistent pesticide mixtures can decrease with age in wild nestlings. This has implications for understanding how chicks are contaminated and provides new insights on pesticide fate within organisms.

Data-driven evaluation of the Paris’ law parameters in polyethylene pipe grades — Increasing the precision of fracture mechanical lifetime estimation

The Paris’ Law parameters A and m are a necessity for predicting lifetimes of structural components under static or fatigue loading that fail due to crack initiation and propagation. Conventional methods require measurements of crack growth kinetics that involve direct or indirect monitoring of physical crack extension during long-term experiments. Usually, measurement series also involve multiple specimens in order to obtain a crack growth controlled failure diagram of an investigated material under relevant load conditions. In this contribution a combination of simple numerical, statistical and analytical approaches is presented to obtain A and m without the need to measure actual crack growth. This is accomplished by reformulating the Paris’ Law to express A as a function of m. The parameter m is varied within a reasonable range to generate an analytical function for A that solves the equation of the Paris’ Law based lifetime for a single specimen. A subsequent superposition of all available specimens reveals an intersection of all A functions at the technically relevant pair of A and m values that are capable of describing the lifetime of all specimens with a minimum error. The obtained best-fitting A and m are in good agreement with literature and are able to predict the lifetime of previously published sample data based upon cyclic Cracked Round Bar test results with an average error of 3.30 ± 2.67%.

Incorporating concrete waste as additive in acidic fermentation–A novel approach for enhanced biohydrogen production and concrete mass reduction

Acidic fermentation (AF) of organic waste/wastewater generates valuable byproducts, including hydrogen, volatile fatty acids, and ethanol; however, its sensitivity to pH drops limits the stability and efficiency of the process. A reversal process, the acidic chemical treatment of concrete waste (CW) to recycle its aggregates, generates calcium hydroxide, which can serve as buffering agent. Meanwhile, integrating both processes can introduce a sustainable win-win approach, which is the aim of this study. To assess this approach, a series of batch AF experiments were conducted at 50 °C and pH 5.5, using glucose as the substrate. Cementitious specimen (1.5 × 1.5 × 0.8 cm) was supplemented to each 200 mL-fermenter. Unamended fermenters, with and without additional NaHCO3-buffering, were used as controls to compare with the amended ones. Introducing cementitious specimens to AF increased H2-production by 2-fold and 1.7-fold compared to controls with and without NaHCO3-addition, respectively, after three consecutive feed-cycles. The surface analysis of incorporated specimen confirmed the Ca, Al, Mg, and Si leaching. The AF efficiency and resulting cementitious mass reduction were further assessed at different organic loads and specimens’ volume, surface area, and porosity (by changing water-to-cement [W/C] ratio). Increasing the organic load from 10 to 20 g-glucose/L resulted in lower H2-production, higher specimen mass reduction (up to ∼32%), and higher Ca2+ release (up to 2 g/L); however, no significant effect was observed when using specimens with higher W/C ratio or surface area. Moreover, the presence of cementitious specimens significantly influenced the microbial composition, leading to notable developments in the abundant genera Thermoanaerobacterium and Bacillus. This study presents a novel approach to sustainably enhancing AF process using CW as both an additive and a treatable substance, with reusable aggregates as a byproduct. It provides valuable insights for optimizing the process and guiding future practical applications. This includes considering various concrete compositions, adjusting organic load conditions, and evaluating long-term stability in larger-scale systems.

Advanced Predictive Structural Health Monitoring in High-Rise Buildings Using Recurrent Neural Networks

This study proposes a machine learning (ML) model to predict the displacement response of high-rise structures under various vertical and lateral loading conditions. The study combined finite element analysis (FEA), parametric modeling, and a multi-objective genetic algorithm to create a robust and diverse dataset of loading scenarios for developing a predictive ML model. The ML model was trained using a recurrent neural network (RNN) with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) layers. The developed model demonstrated high accuracy in predicting time series of vertical, lateral (X), and lateral (Y) displacements. The training and testing results showed Mean Squared Errors (MSE) of 0.1796 and 0.0033, respectively, with R2 values of 0.8416 and 0.9939. The model’s predictions differed by only 0.93% from the actual vertical displacement values and by 4.55% and 7.35% for lateral displacements in the Y and X directions, respectively. The results demonstrate the model’s high accuracy and generalization ability, making it a valuable tool for structural health monitoring (SHM) in high-rise buildings. This research highlights the potential of ML to provide real-time displacement predictions under various load conditions, offering practical applications for ensuring the structural integrity and safety of high-rise buildings, particularly in high-risk seismic areas.

The Influence of Structure Optimization on Vortex Suppression and Energy Dissipation in the Draft Tube of Francis Turbine

Under partial load operating conditions, vortex rope generation in the draft tube of a Francis turbine is considered one of the main reasons for hydro unit vibration. In this paper, a Francis turbine HLA551-LJ-43 in the laboratory was taken as a prototype. Numerical simulations of the entire flow passage were carried out. Four different hydro-turbines were chosen to analyze the effect of vortex suppression, which were named the prototype turbine (N-J), the turbine with J-grooves installed on its conical section (W-J), the one with extending runner cone (C), and the one that considered the J-grooves and the extending runner cone at the same time (J+C). Under the part load conditions in which the vortex rope is easily generated (0.4–0.8 times design flow QBEP), the spectrum characteristics of pressure fluctuation, the morphology of vortex rope, and the energy dissipation based on the entropy production theory in the draft tube were studied. The results show that the three optimized structures W-J, C, and J+C could reduce the pressure pulsation in the conical section of the draft tube, weaken the eccentricity of the vortex rope, and decrease the energy losses in the runner and draft tube. It is worth mentioning that the turbine with a J+C optimized structure had the most potent effect on vortex suppression and energy dissipation. Primarily when operating in deep partial load (DPL) conditions, the efficiency of the turbine with a J+C optimized structure was increased by 13.7% compared to the prototype turbine, and the main frequency amplitude of the pressure pulsation in the draft tube was reduced to 32% of the prototype.

Using multivariate partial least squares on fNIRS data to examine load-dependent brain-behaviour relationships in aging.

Researchers implementing non-invasive neuroimaging have reported distinct load-dependent brain activity patterns in older adults compared with younger adults. Although findings are mixed, these age-related patterns are often associated with compensatory mechanisms of cognitive decline even in the absence of direct comparisons between brain activity and cognitive performance. This study investigated the effects of cognitive load on brain-behavior relationships in younger and older adults using a data-driven, multivariate partial least squares (PLS) analysis of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data. We measured bilateral prefrontal brain activity in 31 older and 27 younger adults while they performed single and dual 2-back tasks. Behavioral PLS analysis was used to determine relationships between performance metrics (reaction time and error rate) and brain oxygenation (HbO) and deoxygenation (HbR) patterns across groups and task loads. Results revealed significant age-group differences in brain-behavior relationships. In younger adults, increased brain activity (i.e., increased HbO and decreased HbR) was associated with faster reaction times and better accuracy in the single task, indicating sufficient neural capacity. Conversely, older adults showed a negative correlation between HbR and error rates in the single task; however, in the dual task, they demonstrated a positive relationship between HbO and performance, indicative of compensatory mechanisms under the higher cognitive load. Overall, older adults' showed relationships with either HbR or HbO, but not both, indicating that the robustness of the relationship between brain activity and behavior varies across task load conditions. Our PLS approach revealed distinct load-dependent brain activity between age groups, providing further insight into neurocognitive aging patterns, such as compensatory mechanisms, by emphasizing the variability and complexity of brain-behavior relationships. Our findings also highlight the importance of considering task complexity and cognitive demands in interpreting age-related brain activity patterns.

Economical design strategies for reinforced concrete one-way slabs: a parametric approach considering material strength and rebar size

Despite the rapid advancements in optimization algorithms for economical reinforced concrete (RC) structures, their application to RC slabs has been significantly limited. The primary constraint is slab depth, governed only by deflection control criteria, which impedes further depth reduction—a key factor in cost optimization. The deflection check relies solely on one design parameter—span length, which is often fixed. This constraint limits the effectiveness of even advanced algorithms, which have consistently failed to deliver substantial cost savings in slab design. To address this issue, this study presents a detailed parametric investigation of three key cost-reducing factors in RC one-way slabs: steel strength, concrete strength, and reinforcing bar sizes, in accordance with the ACI 318–19 code. By bypassing algorithmic constraints, the study formulates optimal design strategies through extensive manual design iterations, providing novel trend-based solutions for cost-effective slab design. The findings indicate that for lower live loads, grade 280 steel offers a 20–30% cost reduction compared to higher-grade steel, despite the latter's strength advantage. However, for higher loads, grade 420 or 500 is recommended. Additionally, optimal bar sizes and concrete strengths are recommended for varying load conditions, offering practical design strategies. This approach provides designers with actionable insights to achieve cost-efficient designs without relying on traditional optimization algorithms.

FBrake, a Method to Simulate the Brake Efficiency of Laden Light Passenger Vehicles in PTIs While Measuring the Braking Forces of Their Unladen Configurations

This study introduces fBrake, a novel simulation method now designed for use in periodic technical inspections of M1 and N1 vehicle categories, addressing challenges posed by Directive 2014/45/EU. The directive mandates that braking efficiency must be measured relative to the vehicle’s maximum mass, which often results in underperformance during inspections due to vehicles typically being unladen. This discrepancy arises because the maximum braking forces are proportional to the vertical load on the wheels, causing empty vehicles to lock their wheels prematurely compared to laden ones. fBrake simulates the braking forces of unladen vehicles to reflect a laden state by employing an optimal brake-force distribution curve that aligns with the vehicle’s inherent braking behavior, whether through proportioning valves or through electronic brake distribution systems in anti-lock-braking-system-equipped vehicles. Our methodology, previously applied to heavy vehicles, involved extensive experimentation with a roller brake tester, comparing the actual braking performances of dozens of vehicles to those of their simulated counterparts using fBrake. The results demonstrate that fBrake reliably replicates the braking efficiency of laden vehicles, validating its use as an accurate and effective tool for braking system assessments in periodic inspections, irrespective of the vehicle’s load condition during the test. This approach ensures compliance with regulatory requirements while enhancing the reliability and safety of vehicle inspections.

Theoretical Study of Asymmetric Bending Force on Metal Deformation in Cold Rolling

A three-dimensional elastic–plastic finite element model of a six-roll cold rolling mill has been developed using the finite element software ABAQUS. The actual parameters of the rolling mill have been incorporated into the finite element model, with the working conditions applied as boundary constraints and load conditions. Subsequently, a non-symmetrical bending force is introduced to the finite element model. Through simulation calculations, this study analyzes the patterns of change in the transverse pressure of the rolling mill and roller pressure during non-symmetrical bending, as well as the variations in strip thickness, crown, edge drop, and flatness. Additionally, the regulating function of the bending force is examined. Each adjustment of 5 t in the asymmetric bending force results in an increase of approximately 0.01 mm in the thickness of the positive bending side of the strip while causing a decrease of about 0.01 mm in the thickness of the negative bending side. Therefore, the application of asymmetric bending forces proves to be effective in controlling the shape of lateral wave defects on the edges of steel strips.

Effects of Structure Parameters on Static Performance of Gas Foil Bearings Based on a New Fully Coupled Elastic–Aerodynamic Model

Abstract: Accurately predicting the performance of gas foil bearings (GFBs) is important. This paper presents a new fully coupled elastic–aerodynamic model for analyzing the static performance of gas foil journal bearings (GFJBs). The gas compressible lubrication model was solved in MATLAB to obtain the gas pressure. The foil structure deformation was solved in COMSOL by considering the Coulomb friction and allowing the contact surfaces to be separated from each other. Under given load and rotational speed conditions, the calculated minimum gas film thickness and attitude angle match well with the literature data, validating the accuracy of the developed model. Based on the model developed, a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the effects of the structural parameters on the static performance was performed. The results showed that as the bump height, top foil thickness, and bump foil thickness increased, the load capacity could be improved to different degrees. The bump foil thickness had the greatest effect on the load capacity. These results provide theoretical guidance for the structural design and practical applications of GFJBs.

Advanced energy management scheme for fuel cell-based microgrid using self–regulated controller and switched capacitor inverter

Clean energy production is now the main challenge for sustainable future which can be addressed by introducing renewable energy sources. Fuel cells are critical in providing sustainable energy solutions by enabling efficient energy conversion in microgrids. To enhance the performance of fuel cell-based microgrids, advanced controllers and inverters are necessary to manage power quality and stability. One of the key benefits of this fuel cell is the separation of energy conversion and management, which allows independent optimization for each function of microgrid's performance, cost, or other installation considerations. The ability to individually control of each component of a microgrid can significantly impact various applications positively. Beyond their technological and economic advantages, fuel cells are highly sensitivity to microgrid's characteristics such as current quality and harmonics which creates difficulties for their design and management. Therefore, the entire microgrid must be managed by an effective energy management strategy and integration of advanced inverter topologies. This study aims to improve fuel cell efficiency and power quality within the microgrid through an advanced energy management (AEM) strategy. The proposed AEM structure is developed focusing on two key components: a self-regulated controller (SRC) and a switched capacitor multilevel inverter (SCMLI). These elements work together to mitigate the disturbances and enhance the power quality of the system. The methodology includes simulation and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing under non-linear load conditions. Initial grid-side current total harmonic distortion (THD) of 28.38% was reduced to 2.19% through the proposed system. An impact analysis is also presented to demonstrates that reducing current harmonics and voltage imbalance have improved the efficiency of fuel cell to 50.18% and fuel utilization to 98.05%. The findings show that the proposed scheme significantly reduces current harmonics and improves the overall performance benchmark of the microgrid and fuel cell.

Effects of passive shoulder-support exoskeleton entity and support force on user range of motion under external loads

This study investigates the effects of a passive shoulder-support exoskeleton entity and support force on the range of motion (ROM) of the shoulder and trunk. Twenty-six healthy participants underwent ROM assessments across three exoskeleton setting conditions (without the exoskeleton; wearing the exoskeleton but the support force deactivated; wearing the exoskeleton with the support force activated) and three external load conditions (0 kg, 3 kg, and 6 kg). Results show that while the exoskeleton entity constrained the shoulder ROM (vertical abduction/adduction, flexion/extension, and horizontal abduction/adduction) and trunk ROM (lateral flexion and rotation), the support force partially alleviated this constraint. External loads primarily restricted the mobility of the shoulder but not the trunk. Interaction effects revealed the complex interplay between external loads and exoskeleton settings on ROM and perceived difficulty, particularly in shoulder vertical abduction/adduction. This study underscores the necessity of considering exoskeleton entity, support force, and external loads in optimizing user joint mobility.The industrial exoskeleton represents a promising solution for enhancing workplace safety and productivity by mitigating work-related musculoskeletal disorders. This study assessed the impact of the exoskeleton's entity and support force on joint mobility across different load scenarios. Joint mobility is critical to perform industrial tasks that require high flexibility and agility.

Assessing combustion characteristics of alternative fuels in a CI engine by use of a wavelet-based analysis of engine vibration signals

In the current work, a wavelet-based approach for assessing combustion performance of alternative fuels in compression-ignition engines, indicated that changes in cylinder pressure amplitude were reflected by commensurate changes in a proposed parameter, with a maximum of a 9% variation. The proposed parameter, the wavelet transform coefficient maximum amplitude (WMA), successfully accomplished this for various engine conditions. The wavelet transform coefficient standard deviation (WSD), a second proposed parameter, was able to track changes in the rates of pressure rise associated with changes in load conditions and fuel type, with a maximum variation in the parameter of 7%. The approach was assessed by testing six fuels in a test engine unit. Thermodynamic property data and vibration signal data were recorded for each of the fuels tested, at six loading conditions. Subsequently, combustion performance was evaluated using traditional thermodynamic parameters and using the WMA and WSD via a MATLAB based algorithm. Thus, it was surmised that the proposed approach can form the basis for a vibration-based assessment of alternative fuel combustion performance in reciprocating engines.

Frontal Impact Energy Absorbers for Passenger Cars.

Road accidents cause considerable losses to road users and to society. The steady increase in the number of vehicles leads to increased traffic volume. Therefore, there is a real need to improve passenger safety by developing passive safety systems. This article presents the results of experimental tests of structures absorbing kinetic energy, which could be used in the front section of a vehicle in order to reduce the consequences of passenger car head-on collisions. A number of crash tests of selected structures were conducted under various load conditions. An analysis was carried out of parameters enabling the authors to assess the level of energy absorption by the absorbers made, and compare these to absorbers available on the market. The tests carried out made it possible to determine energy absorption capability of the crash boxes prepared and to identify a structure exhibiting the most advantageous properties from the point of view of its prospective use. Of all of the absorbers analysed, in the context of energy absorption, it was the absorber made of glass-fibre-reinforced polyphenylene sulphide that produced the most advantageous results. Nonetheless, favourable results were obtained for all of the structures tested.

Finite element analysis of crack propagation, crack-gap-filling, and recovery behavior of mechanical properties in oxidation-induced self-healing ceramics

The oxidation-induced self-healing of cracks is an attractive function for the application of ceramics in high-temperature structural components requiring high reliability. To further optimize materials or components for practical applications, the development of numerical simulation techniques is of importance. In this study, we examined crack growth, crack-gap-filling by oxide, and re-cracking behaviors in chevron-notched specimens under various load and temperature conditions by adopting a finite element analysis (FEA) approach incorporating a damage-healing constitutive model based on fracture mechanics and oxidation kinetics. Furthermore, by implementing the mechanical properties and oxidation kinetic parameters of reported self-healing ceramics composites into the FEA, we examined the effects of the composition and composite structure on the cracking and healing behaviors. Crack-gap-filling simulations suggested that the damage variables gradually decreased from the crack tip, and the minimum healing time was determined by the time required for the complete filling of the element at the crack mouth with the largest crack opening width. Furthermore, the recovery of the stiffness and strength could be successfully reproduced after complete healing with a reasonable healing temperature and time. The proposed FEA approach could also contribute to estimating the minimum healing time required at various temperatures to heal a given damage for various composites.

Design and Simulation of eVTOL Aircraft Thermal Management System

Abstract Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL) aircraft with hybrid or fully-electric propulsion systems are becoming popular for Urban Air Mobility (UAM) applications. However, they face challenges such as limited power and energy density, stringent operating temperature constraints, and the generation of low-grade waste heat. These issues emphasize the need for effective Thermal Management Systems (TMS) design. In light of the above, this paper aims to design the TMS for a parallel hybrid electric XV-15 aircraft, a widely known civil tiltrotor concept. The TMS is integrated into the aircraft system to assess its impact on energy efficiency and emissions at both aircraft and mission levels. This study considers current state of the art technology and expected advancements over the next two decades to identify the benefits of electrification. In the designed TMS, liquid cooling cold plates serve as the main heat acquisition and cooling system for each electric component. An air-coolant heat exchanger is also incorporated to dissipate the accumulated heat load. The study conducts a comparative analysis to determine the optimal TMS design point. It involves a comparison between two design scenarios: one focused on the cruise condition, which constitutes a significant portion of the flight mission, and another designed specifically for peak heat load conditions. This ensures a holistic evaluation of the TMS's performance across various flight phases, balancing efficiency and resilience to peak demands. Finally, the energy efficiency and emission penalty associated with the TMS integration are quantified and discussed in the study.