Load-bearing Brick Research Articles

NON-FIRED LATERITE SOIL BRICKS WITH NA-BASED STABILIZER ADDITION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Fired bricks are widely used, but they are energy-intensive and non-eco-friendly. Non-fired bricks with chemical stabilisers can be the alternative solution, which is a low-energy-intensive and environmentally friendly manufacturing product. Laterite soil can be the raw material for the synthesis of non-fired clay brick in sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution. However, it may have been mixed with other laterite soils with different optimum moisture contents and grain sizes during extraction. Thus, the mixing ratio of laterite soil, Na-based stabilisers, and water for non-fired brick production is determined. Besides, two types of laterite soil, LAT 1 and LAT 2, from different locations were prepared, and another type of laterite soil, LAT 3, was prepared by mixing LAT 1 and LAT 2. Both three are compared primarily in terms of compressive strength and water absorption, which are mixed with the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio. As a result, the new mixing ratio with increased water content was determined based on the optimum moisture content of the soil. Besides, the optimum mixing ratio of each type of brick was determined. Overall, based on the Malaysian standard, all types of brick samples from each ratio could be used as load-bearing class 1 and internal wall bricks. Additionally, LAT 2 and LAT 3-based bricks with a ratio of 1.5 Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio can be used as load-bearing brick class 2.

Tuning Element Distribution, Structure and Properties Using the SPSS Method

The term "structural elements" refers to the roof, slab, beams, columns, girders, and other structural components and connections, both inside and outside of the exterior walls, window frames, and doors, as well as all other components that make up the building's framework. Structural components may include load-bearing brick or cement walls, dust walls, or made from wood partitions that are both outside and inside; " Stone, brick, or concrete vaults; cast-iron, stone, or concrete columns; Beams, trusses, and girders made of wood, iron, or metal" so forth. Structural layout is critical in civil engineering as it allows to test whether or not the shape is secure. Structural layout presents all important records about foundations, floors, partitions, beams, roof types and fine of substances. Structural methods are divided into two main groups, static and dynamic. Things that change will be discussed in the next section. Fixed structures often have fixed parts in relation to each other. The entire structure, like the main truss of the International Space Station, can move with respect to the ground. Fundamental analysis represents The starting place of chemical knowledge. It has furnished important facts about substances and their composition for the reason that the start of the development of chemical concepts and technology in wellknown. Based on natural compounds which include physical fluids, chemical compounds, ingesting water, minerals, soil or waste, elemental analysis can screen critical facts that may be used to tell scientists approximately the health, protection and health of a person or the environment. Drinking water fine and our chemistry. The 4 elements of fire, earth, air and water are the inspiration of life. The warmness of the sun, the earth beneath our toes, the air we breathe and the water we drink are essential to our existence. They exist in a harmonious balance, and this balance is important for us and the planet to live on. SPSS statistics is a multivariate analytics, business intelligence, and criminal investigation data management, advanced analytics, developed by IBM for a statistical software package. A long time, spa inc. Was created by, IBM purchased it in 2009. The brand name for the most recent versions is IBM SPSS statistics. Interstitial Complex, Multiple Configurations, Reversible Reactions, Large Lattice Relaxation, Recombination Enhanced Reactions, Temperature Dependent o~m~j and Large Stokes Shift. The Cronbach's Alpha Reliability result. The overall Cronbach's Alpha value for the model is .744 which indicates 74% reliability. From the literature review, the above 50% Cronbach's Alpha value model can be considered for analysis. The Cronbach's Alpha Reliability result. The overall Cronbach's Alpha value for the model is .744 which indicates 74% reliability. From the literature review, the above 50% Cronbach's Alpha value model can be considered for analysis.Interstitial Complex, Multiple Configurations, Reversible Reactions, Large Lattice Relaxation and Recombination Enhanced Reactions.

Experimental research on thermoelectric characteristics of a thermoelectric generator with external influencing factors optimization

The external influencing factors, the thermal interface material, load-bearing brick weight, and temperature difference, of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) device were experimentally examined. The micro heat pipe array (MHPA), as one novel thermal interface material, was investigated. The multi-variable coupling approach is used to analyze the intrinsic coupling correlation of the external influencing factors. The dimensionless synthesis economic factor index was proposed to analyze the improvement of thermoelectric characteristics, which can quickly assess the contact thermal resistance of different thermal interface materials. The results showed that the load power and load voltage generally increase with increased temperature differences. The contact thermal resistance decreases with increased load-bearing brick weight, but the decrement gradually decreases. The thermal interface material plays an important role in thermoelectric characteristics. The load-bearing brick weight performs little impact on the non-thermal interface material (NTIM) scheme. The two thermal conductive silicone grease schemes noticeably reveal better thermoelectric characteristics than those of the graphite paper schemes, although the thermal conductivity of thermal conductive silicone grease are much lower than that of graphite paper. The MHPA scheme exhibit the best thermoelectric characteristics, and its dimensionless synthesis economic factor index can be up to 371.81 %.

Treatment of Clay with Oil Palm Fibre Ash and Rice Husk Ash Mixture for Burnt Clay Bricks Production

The current study examines the use of oil palm fibre ash (OPFA) and rice husk ash (RHA) mixture in the treatment of A-6 Makurdi clay for burnt brick production. The results show that the compressive strength of 9.4 MN/m2 for burnt untreated brick increased to 10.86 MN/m2 for burnt 2%OPFA+2%RHA treated brick. The corresponding water absorption of 14.9% for the burnt untreated brick increased to 16.2% for burnt 2%OPFA+2%RHA treated brick. The strength value of 10.86 MN/m2 is greater than 10.3 MN/m^2 which is the minimum strength value for negligible weather (NW) conditions. The water absorption of 16.2% is less than 17%, 22% and ‘no limit’ which are the maximum values for severe weather (SW), moderate weather (MW) and NW respectively. Based on combined strength and water absorption criteria, burnt bricks production with 2%OPFA+2%RHA treated A-6 Makurdi clay is adequate for use as a load-bearing brick in wall areas of NW condition.

НЕСУЩАЯ СПОСОБНОСТЬ И ДОЛГОВЕЧНОСТЬ НАРУЖНЫХ КИРПИЧНЫХ СТЕН ЗДАНИЙ

For buildings of historical development of cities, as well as architectural dominants of urban and rural settlements, the architectural attractiveness of buildings is often created by erecting external load-bearing brick walls, including multilayer ones, as well as curtain external walls with a finishing layer of facing bricks. When designing building envelopes, as well as in the process of researching and assessing the technical condition of building envelopes, it becomes necessary to calculate (assess) the bearing capacity of external walls, to assess their durability. The object of research is the bearing capacity and durability of the outer walls of buildings. A review of domestic and foreign scientific and technical literature has been carried out. He showed that the overwhelming majority of scientific publications concern the choice of constructive solutions for walls, the purpose and use of new building technologies and materials, their technical characteristics, as well as the assessment of the energy efficiency of the proposed constructive solutions for external walls. Examples of defects in the outer layer of multilayer bearing walls of brick buildings and recommendations for ensuring the durability of the front layer of a brick wall are given. The requirements of the current building codes for calculating the bearing capacity of multilayer brick walls are considered. An example of calculating an eccentrically compressed multilayer brick wall with equivalent calculated cross-section is given. In order to simplify the calculation of the bearing capacity, it is proposed to use computer programs to determine the geometric characteristics of the equivalent calculated cross-section. In particular, for a short-term application of loads to determine the stresses and analyze the stress state of the equivalent calculated cross-section of the wall, an example of using the program, the constructor of sections PK LIRA-SAPR, is given. It is shown that it is necessary to consider the distribution of stresses over the section under short-term and long-term loading in the design of multilayer brick walls.

Tracking the material cycle of Italian bricks with the aid of building information modeling

Clay brick masonry is a vernacular construction technique; it continues to be used extensively in Italy and elsewhere. Despite the essential role clay bricks play in construction, they are often overlooked in the environmental literature, and sound production data are hard to obtain. This study integrates material flow analysis (MFA) and building information modeling (BIM) to assess the quantity and use cases of clay bricks and terracotta tiles used for construction in Italy. Material flows for these products were traced from the supply of raw materials to manufacturing, use, demolition, and waste management in Italy in 2006, 2011, and 2016. 3D representations of typical buildings were drawn in BIM and used to create material intensities to investigate functional uses of bricks. Hollow bricks used as infills in external walls and load-bearing bricks were the main products manufactured in all three years of analysis, followed by bricks used in internal walls and floor-forming bricks. In all cases, maintenance and refurbishment of existing buildings was the primary end-use category. From 2006 to 2016, the Italian brick production shrank fourfold, from 20.6 Tg to 5.1 Tg, while direct carbon dioxide emissions from the calcination of calcium carbonate decreased from 2.4 Tg to 0.5 Tg. Functional recycling is rare, and this poses serious challenges to the circularity of the construction sector. The results demonstrate that the integration of MFA and BIM approaches markedly improves the detail, speed, and realism of quantifying the material flows within the urban environment. This article met the requirements for a Gold-Gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Recycling industrial slags in production of fired clay bricks for sustainable manufacturing

Due to the production of industrial slags in massive amounts, there is a high demand for recycling these slags and avoiding their dumping in landfills. This article aims to recycle industrial slags in brick manufacturing and investigates the performance of fired clay bricks incorporating different kinds of industrial slags such as granulated blast furnace slag (GBS), ferrochromium slag (FCS), and steel slag (STS). For this purpose, two different dosages of slags (i.e., 10 and 20 wt % of clay) and two different firing temperatures (i.e., 1000 and 1100 oC) were considered. Various physical, mechanical, and durability tests were performed to evaluate the properties of bricks incorporating industrial slags. Results show that the compressive strength of the bricks incorporating industrial slags are well above the minimum compressive strength limits of bricks as per different building standards. The bricks incorporating industrial slag can be classified as load-bearing bricks for structural applications in accordance with the ASTM C469 standard. An increase in the porosity of bricks is observed with the addition of STS. However, reduced porosity is observed for bricks incorporating FCS and GBS than traditional bricks. Based on the water absorption and efflorescence test results, bricks incorporating industrial slags can be used as severe weather resistant bricks following ASTM C62 standard and slight efflorescence bricks per ASTM C67 standard. The amounts of heavy metals in the leachates of bricks are observed below the specified limits of the Environment Protection Authority. SEM images and EDS analysis of bricks are also supporting the results of this study. Based on the results, utilizing industrial slags in brick manufacturing can help recycle the abundant industrial wastes and develop the fired clay bricks with desired properties.

Inspection of sugar factory brick wall*

Nowadays a huge number of industrial buildings constructed in the last century need restoration. Structures with brick walls are in the list. The reason for this is the appearance of cracks, breaks, spalls, cavities, holloes and other discontinuities of brickwork; wall deformations; stratification of brickwork rows; humidification of walling, weathering and leaching of mortar; loss of individual bricks; damage to protective and finishing layers; efflorescence on the surface of brickwork and many other things.The causes of such defects can be the following: unsatisfactory operating conditions; errors at the design stage; low quality of the used construction material; substandard work; differential settlement of walls foundation; violation or lack of wall waterproofing; natural aging of masonry and other negative factors.In this work the object of the inspection was a brick wall of the main building of the sugar factory, which was put into operation in 1962.The inspection results showed that the condition of the load-bearing brick wall of the sugar factory main building, taking into account the scope and danger of defects, the degree of physical and moral wear of structures, as well as a number of other factors, can be considered unsatisfactory (limited working capacity) and the building can be regarded suitable for reconstruction and further operation.

Factors of non-uniform properties of interlocking compressed earth brick units

This paper presents the laboratory investigation of the mechanical and physical properties of interlocking compressed earth brick (ICEB) units. Both mechanical and physical properties of a masonry unit are essential to understand the performance and behaviors of the masonry structures. This paper also discussed the factors and causes that influenced the non-uniform properties of ICEB units. Four types of ICEB are tested in terms of compressive strength, density, water absorption, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength. From the results obtained, parameters such as shape and manufacturing process are found to significantly affect the mechanical properties of ICEB. Yet, high depth of the groove and low compression rate lead to the decreased in compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength of the ICEB units. The results of mechanical and physical properties of ICEB units are exceeded the minimum requirement for masonry and load-bearing bricks.

The Potential of Black Rice Husk Ash (BRHA) in Brick Productions

A lot of researchers have studied the rice husk brick and it is the most widely used material in earth construction. Although study has been carried out on rice husk brick previously, more in-depth study on the aspect of the optimal replacement levels of local black rice husk ash to the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) that will meet stated standard requirements for non load-bearing bricks need has not been carried out. Despite all the natural materials have been used in construction materials, black rice husk ash is important to be reviewed based on the rationale of availability and growing rice husk production year by year due to high demand of rice supply.

Utilization of Blended Waste Materials in Bricks

Cement is considered a key raw material for brick production. However, excessive use of cement leads to a negative environment impact. Cement replaced with locally available waste materials has a significant potential to address this environmental impact, especially in the construction industry by contributing to cleaner production. The objective of this research is to investigate the performance of brick where cement is replaced by fly ash and palm oil fuel ash, waste materials typically available in Malaysia, where the construction industry is on the rise. To determine the performance of these bricks, a compressive strength test, a water absorption test, and a thermogravimetric analysis were carried out at different percentage combinations of fly ash and palm oil fuel ash. The results from the tests reveal that both fly ash and palm oil fuel ash incorporated bricks satisfy Class 1 and Class 2 load-bearing brick requirements according to the Malaysian Standard MS76:1972 along with water absorption requirements as per ASTM C55-11. The thermogravimetric analysis study confirms that the Ca(OH)2 gradually decreases due to the increase of pozzolanic material contents (fly ash and palm oil fuel ash). Moreover, these newly developed bricks cost less than the conventional bricks.

Gropius and the Teddy Bear: a tale of two factories

The architecturally radical Steiff teddy bear factory in Giengen, Germany is a three storey, double skin glass curtain wall building with a steel frame, built in 1903. It is almost unknown in architectural history. On the other hand the loadbearing brick Fagus factory built in 1911 to a design by Gropius and Meyer, in spite of its nineteenth century technology, has become a hallowed icon of modern architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage site. The article discusses the contested history of both buildings and offers some suggestions as to why one became famous and the other did not. It also discusses the equally contested history of the teddy bear, showing that in both cases, history tends to ignore facts in favour of good stories.

Excavation-Induced Settlement and Tilt of a 3-Story Building

AbstractA 3-story building was found tilted badly as a result of a nearby deep excavation. Numerous cracks were developed on the facade walls and load-bearing brick walls. Dislodgement of some timber joists was observed at some parts of the second and third stories of the building. A detailed assessment of the conditions of the building was carried out. Unlike current prevailing practice, the assessment of damages caused by excavation-induced ground movements of this building includes tilts and out-of-plumbs of the load-bearing brick walls. The present study proposes to assume that the building behaves as a rigid body, and with appropriate empirical building correction factors to correct the inappropriateness of this assumption, reasonable estimates of the resulting out-of-plumbs of load-bearing brick walls of such buildings caused by a nearby deep excavation can be obtained. The empirically derived building correction factor is validated by comparing the predicted and measured out-of-plumbs of the brick ...

Autoclaved Brick from Steel Slag and Silicon Tailings

The load-bearing brick is made from steel slag and silicon tailings by pressing and autoclaving process. Because of the volume stability, steel slag was ground to above 320 m2/kg and wet cured in 50-60°C at 12-24 hours in the present of additives, before pressure forming and autoclaving process. Tailings account for 63% of the total mass of the brick, while steel slag 30 %. The compressive strength of the brick was up to 13.1MPa, bending strength 3.2MPa, and with low drying shrinkage and good freeze-thaw resistance. The application conditions were discussed.

Design-Build :: Build-Design

Since the early 1990s, the design-build program at Virginia Tech's Washington-Alexandria Architecture Center (WAAC) has introduced the idea of prudence into architecture students' education. The primary vehicle for this undertaking has been the WAAC building itself, a load-bearing brick and timber structure built in the early 20th century in Alexandria, Virginia. Here, design-build projects are all, in some way, permanent modifications to the building or its immediate landscape.

Autoclaved brick from low-silicon tailings

The load-bearing brick is made from low-silicon tailings by pressing and autoclaving process, in the presence of alkali-activated slag/fly ash cementing material (AAFSC). Tailings accounts for 83% of the total mass of the brick. The compressive strength of the brick is up to 16.1 MPa, bending strength 3.8 MPa, and with low drying shrinkage and good freeze–thaw resistance. Some factors influencing the mechanical strength of the brick including forming pressure, forming water content and curing regime, are investigated. The hydration products, freeze–thaw durability and anti-carbonation characteristics of the products are discussed.

Interior Insulation Retrofits of Load-Bearing Masonry Walls in Cold Climates

Abstract Reducing the energy consumption of buildings has become increasingly imperative because of the combined demands of energy security, rising energy costs, and the need to reduce the environmental damage associated with energy consumption. A significant amount of research has developed guidance and technology to assist designers and owners in significantly reducing the energy consumption of new buildings. However, a vast stock of existing buildings, the great majority of which have poorly insulated enclosures, exists. Improving the energy performance of this stock of buildings will be a very important part of transitioning North America from an imported fossil fuel dependent region, to a low-carbon, self-sufficient economy. Upgrading, renovating, and converting buildings to new uses involve numerous challenges. One socially, culturally, and economically important class of buildings is load-bearing brick and stone masonry buildings. These were typically built before the Second World War. Adding insul...

The Lessons from Experience

Record of earthquake activity in China date back more than 3000 years, and measurements can be traced to 132 AD when Chang Heng devised his dragon seismoscope. More recent experience is here discussed by a member of the Beijing Architectural Design Institute, who stresses the value of ‘strong columns and weak beams’ for reinforced concrete and frame-shear wall structures, for example, and the need for bracing to improve stability of timber framing. Ring beams, tooth bonding and the addition of reinforced concrete columns greatly improve the performance of loadbearing brick walls.