LNG Production Research Articles

The European Energy Crisis and the Consequences for the Global Natural Gas Market

The Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 led to severe disruptions in the European gas market with significant repercussions on a global scale. The conflict caused a surge in energy prices, a major reshuffling of global natural gas flows, and a shift in the policy-makers’ agendas toward energy supply security. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the developments in the global gas market in the aftermath of the war in Ukraine, focusing in particular on the European gas market and on global LNG trade flows. We first review the characteristics of the gas market in terms of both pricing benchmarks and contractual terms. Next, we analyze the changes to LNG and natural gas production, consumption, and trade flows throughout the European energy crisis. Finally, we review the main policy response to the energy crisis and present some considerations on the gas market outlook. JEL Classification: L95, P28, Q35

Optimizing front-end purification units for LNG production: A novel modelling approach for predicting solid-fluid equilibria applied to benzene solubility

Literature solid-fluid equilibrium data dealing with the solubility of benzene in 22 pure components and mixtures of interest for LNG production have been compared to values predicted by a thermodynamic package composed by a fluid-phase model and a solid-phase model (i) under the assumption that the solid phase is composed by pure benzene, and (ii) without further regression of parameters within both the fluid-phase and solid-phase models.The fluid-phase model is a reference equation of state explicit in the reduced Helmholtz Energy and based on the multi-fluid approximation for the calculation of thermodynamic properties of fluids and fluid mixtures, having the same functional form of the GERG-2008 equation of state, whereas the solid-phase model is a recently published Gibbs Energy equation of state for solid benzene.The predicted solubilities of solid benzene in the liquid phase of light components (methane + ethane, ethane, and propane) and heavy components (potential solid co-formers) are in a good agreement with literature values for almost all the systems under investigation.The two equations of state provide therefore a reliable model for the prediction of benzene freeze-out conditions in LNG mixtures, leading to front-end purification units of liquefied natural gas plants properly tailored to meet high plant availability (reducing maintenance operations and shutdown) while achieving financial targets (energy efficient purification processes, higher margins in LNG sale).

Cultivating a culture of excellence: Synthesizing employee engagement initiatives for performance improvement in LNG production

Cultivating a culture of excellence is paramount for success in LNG production, and employee engagement plays a central role in achieving this goal. This abstract explores the synthesis of various employee engagement initiatives aimed at enhancing performance in LNG production facilities. Effective employee engagement initiatives are essential for fostering a culture of excellence within LNG production facilities. By empowering employees and promoting a sense of ownership and commitment, organizations can unlock the full potential of their workforce and drive continuous improvement in performance. This abstract examines a range of employee engagement strategies tailored specifically for the unique challenges and demands of LNG production. These initiatives encompass various aspects of employee engagement, including communication, training and development, recognition and rewards, and fostering a supportive work environment. Communication lies at the heart of effective employee engagement. Open and transparent communication channels facilitate the exchange of ideas, feedback, and information, fostering collaboration and alignment towards common goals. Additionally, regular communication helps employees feel valued and informed, enhancing their sense of belonging and commitment to the organization. Investing in training and development opportunities is another critical aspect of employee engagement in LNG production. By providing employees with the skills and knowledge they need to excel in their roles, organizations can empower them to contribute meaningfully to the success of the operation. Continuous learning opportunities also demonstrate a commitment to employee growth and development, which can boost morale and job satisfaction. Recognition and rewards programs play a crucial role in reinforcing desired behaviors and motivating employees to perform at their best. Whether through monetary incentives, public recognition, or other forms of acknowledgment, recognizing employee contributions fosters a culture of appreciation and reinforces the organization's values. Finally, creating a supportive work environment that prioritizes employee well-being and work-life balance is essential for sustaining high levels of engagement and performance. Providing resources such as wellness programs, flexible work arrangements, and opportunities for social connection helps employees feel supported and valued, leading to greater job satisfaction and commitment. In summary, cultivating a culture of excellence in LNG production requires a multifaceted approach to employee engagement. By implementing a range of initiatives focused on communication, training and development, recognition and rewards, and fostering a supportive work environment, organizations can empower their employees to thrive and drive continuous improvement in performance. Keywords: Cultivating, Culture of Excellence, Performance Improvement, LNG Production, Employing Engagement Initiatives.

A Review of the Analysis of Austenitic Stainless Steel, Welding Methods, and Ultra-Low Temperature Characteristics for the Manufacture of Liquefied Hydrogen Tanks

Paris agreement’s goal was to the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2℃ above pre-industrial levels and limit global temperature increase to 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has reinforced regulations regarding sulfur content, aiming to limit the sulfur content of ship fuel oil from 3.5% to 0.5% from 2020. LNG fuel contains a small amount of sulfur, enabling compliance with IMO’s sulfur content regulations and effectively reducing carbon emissions. However, the main component of LNG is liquefied methane, which has limitations due to methane emissions generated during LNG production, transportation, and distribution. Hydrogen energy is in the spotlight as an alternative fuel to significantly reduce greenhouse gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. In the case of liquid hydrogen, rather than gaseous hydrogen, the volume is reduced to 1/800, increasing the storage and transport efficiency of hydrogen by about seven times. Additionally, there is an advantage that a separate dehydrogenation process is not required. The most promising material for liquefied hydrogen tanks is austenitic stainless steel (ASS), although there are various materials that can be considered. It is expected that the use of ASS will be actively pursued in the future, especially for applying storage tanks to maritime transportation, where welding is essential. Evaluation methods of the physical properties of the weld in a cryogenic atmosphere for the stability of the liquefied hydrogen storage tank were also discussed.

Session 13. Oral Presentation for: Emissions reduction in LNG production facilities through emerging post-combustion carbon capture and storage technologies

Session 13. Oral Presentation for: Emissions reduction in LNG production facilities through emerging post-combustion carbon capture and storage technologies

Конъюнктура мирового рынка СПГ в условиях санкционного давления

The article reveals aspects of the situation on the global LNG market in the context of sanctions pressure on Russian LNG enterprises, and suggests ways for Russian LNG enterprises to adapt to these conditions. The conditions of sanctions pressure on Russian LNG enterprises are described and the impact of sanctions on the LNG industry is revealed. The conducted research is based on statistical data from Russian and foreign sources. Aspects of the global LNG market environment include: an increase in the scale of LNG production in the world, the use of innovative gas liquefaction technologies, the development of a system for organizing and managing the transportation of liquefied gas, an increase in the number of states purchasing LNG for their needs, changes in the volume of LNG production and consumption in the world. The analysis presented in the article of the prospects and directions of development of this market in the future, as well as the main economic and technical factors influencing its functioning, and its conditions over the past five years have shown that this market is actively developing. The authors come to the conclusion: Russian LNG exporting enterprises have managed to adapt to the current competitive market conditions of global LNG trade, diversify their capacities and transport logistics, and have also significantly expanded the possibilities of transporting LNG along the Northern Sea Route.

3E analyses and multi-objective optimization of a liquid nitrogen wash based cogeneration system for electrical power and LNG production

A liquid nitrogen wash based novel system is proposed for electricity generation and LNG production. This system utilizes cold energy of methane rectification for power generation, and realizes the LNG production through methane recovery from exhaust gas. Effects of operational parameters on net generation capacity (NEG) and energy efficiency are studied. Exergy destruction/efficiency and exergy cost are obtained. Advanced exergy/exergo-economic analyses are conducted to clarify the improvement potential and improvement strategy. Finally, the optimal solutions are obtained in multi-objective optimization. Results show that propane could be used as the organic working medium and the maximum NEG is 675.95 kW and the energy efficiency is 19.34 %. As 88.8 % of the system investment cost is for the equipment, reduction on exergy destruction cost of equipment should be considered. Advanced analysis indicates that 27.27 % of the exergy destruction, 30.02 % of the exergy cost and 7.20 % of the investment cost can be avoided. The thermodynamic optimization shows that the highest energy efficiency is 67.26 %, the highest exergy efficiency is 76.95 % and the lowest exergy cost per unit is 28.45 $/GJ. The economic optimization shows that exergy efficiency is improved by 2.83 % and NEG is improved by 47.95 % when increasing the investment cost for 6.13 %.

Crystallization risk of aromatic compounds in LNG production. Part II: The solubility of p-xylene in methane-rich mixtures down to cryogenic temperatures

New measurements of solubility of solid p-xylene in solvents methane and (90%mol/mol)methane + (10%mol/mol)ethane have been carried out using a cryogenic apparatus and adopting a static-analytic method for temperatures from 273 K down to 128 K at nominal pressures of 3 and 6 MPa. Measured solid-liquid and solid-vapor equilibria have been compared to literature values of solubility of solid p-xylene in methane-rich phases and to modeling results obtained by coupling a cubic equation of state and a model for the solid phase. Results confirm the conclusions reported in our previous study of this system that evidenced of a non-monotonic variation of the solubility of p-xylene with temperature when crossing the critical region of the solvent and that binary interaction parameters regressed on vapor-liquid equilibrium can be used for predicting the solubility at cryogenic conditions.

Petrophysical characteristics of igneous rocks in the Outboard Browse Basin, North West Shelf of Australia: implications for predicting igneous sequences prior to exploration drilling

Abstract The Browse Basin is one of Australia's major hydrocarbon provinces, where significant discoveries have been made in recent decades including the Ichthys and Prelude fields, which accounted for ∼15% of the cumulative Australian liquified natural gas (LNG) production in 2019–20. This rift basin hosts extensive Mesozoic intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks, having been identified from both well and seismic data, and which are recognized as one of the key challenges for exploration and production activities in this region. Their impact on petroleum exploration is demonstrated by the number of wells which encountered unpredicted or thicker than expected igneous rock units both within and adjacent to target sections. This study therefore aims to document the reasons of such unexpectedness, and to develop capability to predict the occurrence of igneous rock units prior to drilling in the Browse Basin and other rift settings that contain igneous rocks. Multiple case studies of uncommercial exploration wells are developed by integrating petrophysical and seismic reflection data, focusing in particular along the outboard part of the basin where igneous rocks are most prevalent. Our study highlights the importance of understanding petrophysical, spatial and chemical heterogeneities of igneous rocks in basins to explain their emplacement and distribution, and thereby predict their occurrence prior to exploration and development activities.

中国天然气生产供应能力的影响因素分析及对策研究

中国天然气生产供应能力的影响因素分析及对策研究

Structure planning of 13470 DWT capacity jetty on Liquid Berth II Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan

Liquified Natural Gas is one of the products produced from refineries in the Caspian Sea. LNG production increases due to demand, causing the addition of new offshore platforms. To provide loading and unloading services for LNG, a special dock is needed, for this reason a special liquid bulk jetty with a capacity of 13470 DWT is planned. Structural planning using STAADPRO V8i Select Series 6 software, using British standards in planning. The jetty structure is expected to be strong against the loads that work due to environmental conditions and ship impacts. Structural analysis is carried out by comparing the structure’s Unity Check Ratio value with the Unity Check Ratio permitted based on applicable standards. The result is that the structure is able to withstand the working load with details of 4 Breasting Dolphin structures, 2 Mooring Dolphin structures, 1 Jetty Head Platform structure, and 1 Trestle structure.

An Innovative Approach for Natural Gas Liquefaction Using a Mixed-Multi-Component-Refrigerant

The natural gas liquefaction is the most expensive and energy-intensive phase in the natural gas-to-liquefied natural gas-to-natural gas chain. In addition, this region has the biggest development potential. As a result, numerous LNG production methods have been developed and are deployed at export facilities around the world. The goal of this study is to describe and assess an innovative approach for mixed-refrigerant (MR) LNG method. The authors have dubbed this technique the MR-X approach. The MR-X process was developed based on the globally proven liquefaction technology C3MR and its large-scale successor AP-X™ (which offers many benefits and flexibility), but with a novel precooling phase construct. In pre-cooling and liquefaction phases, the refrigerant is a combination of methane, nitrogen, propane, ethane, butane, and isobutane. The paper investigates the creation of the MR-X technology, as well as its modelling, energy, and exergy investigations.

Elephant Hunt: The Search for the Oil and Gas Supplies to 2050

_ The oil and gas industry is at a critical juncture in the evolving global energy landscape. As the world intensifies its focus on combating climate change and embracing renewable energy sources, traditional fossil fuel exploration faces unprecedented challenges. The energy transition is now a tangible reality, reshaping the foundations of the oil and gas sector. However, just as there is no shortage of proclamations that the end draws near for King Fossil’s reign at the top of the energy resource pyramid, an equally high number sees the old king hanging around beyond 2050. This back-and-forth between renewable and fossil energy proponents gives all a good bone of contention to gnaw on. In September, Fatih Birol, executive director of the International Energy Agency (IEA), wrote in the Financial Times that it is taboo to suggest that demand for fossil fuels could go into permanent decline. He announced that the relentless age of growth for fossil fuels is set to decline by 2030, according to new projections by the IEA set to be released this month in its World Energy Outlook. OPEC criticized the announcement, describing the narrative as “extremely risky and impractical to dismiss fossil fuels or to suggest that they are at the beginning of their end.” The oil-producing nations group said the IEA’s thinking on fossil fuels is ideologically driven rather than fact-based, and predictions like these are “dangerous” because they are often accompanied by calls to stop investing in new oil and gas projects. Upstream Investment: Too Little or Just Right? The IEA and OPEC did find a small patch of common ground, agreeing that there would still be demand for oil and gas in 2050 and that continued investment in new oil and gas projects is needed. The underinvestment in upstream asset development has been a concern for several years, with the COVID-19 pandemic only exacerbating the issue, and according to a recent report by Goldman Sachs, oil and gas activity declined at a compounded 7% from 2014 to 2021. The investment bank expects primary energy capital expenditure to grow 48% by 2027 to $1.9 trillion, up from $1.3 trillion in 2022. “We believe the energy industry has been underinvesting since the peak of 2014, with investments in traditional energy (upstream oil and gas) falling 50% in 2020 from the peak and driving an 18% reduction in global primary energy investments, from $1.3 trillion in 2014 to $1.0 trillion in 2020,” the bank said. “A number of oil and gas investment decisions had been delayed since 2014, translating into 10 million B/D of lost oil production by 2024–2025—equivalent to Saudi Arabia’s annual production—and 3 million BOED of lost LNG production—more than Qatar, on our estimates,” according to Goldman Sachs.

Advances in liquefied natural gas processes

Over the past 30 years, a considerable world trade in LNG has developed. Today, LNG represents a significant component of the energy consumption of many countries and has been profitable to both the exporting host countries and their energy company partners. The attention of LNG producers have now been directed towards improved production. All latest plants have been sized around this number. Some of them have been designed by optimizing existing layout, other brand new and few required the optimization of centrifugal compressors and so the introduction of some novelty to maximize production given a certain driver. Improvements in the aerodynamic design have been necessary to maximize efficiency and increase operating range; advanced rotordynamic design to handle more capacity, new casings to increase design pressure and reduce the number are some of the innovations introduced to advance LNG operations. Novelties have not been limited to main refrigerant compressor but also to auxiliaries such as Boil Off Gas (BOG), CO2, End Flash. Eventually also new drivers have been qualified for LNG plant operations and other are under study for its high efficiency and possible future application. Extensive application of modular construction techniques will reduce the time and cost of construction in remote areas of the world. This article aims to explain, in layman terms, LNG basic knowledge, exploration, production and advancement. Throughout the article, references have been drawn from a wide range of resources and author’s personal industry experience. It is intended to use the article as a vehicle to share oil & gas industry knowledge with a wide range of audience.

Optimal design and analysis of a liquid hydrogen and LNG coproduction system with multistage multicycle cascade refrigeration system

The efficient utilization of industrial by-products, such as synthetic ammonia exhaust tail gas and coke oven gas, has been neglected in China for a long time. Thus, the development of novel high-efficiency industrial by-product utilization methods is of great importance. A multistage multicycle cascade refrigeration system utilized for hydrogen liquefaction with LNG production is constructed in this paper. The industrial by-products after purification directly enter into cryogenic separation liquefaction system. Liquid hydrogen and LNG are produced after pre-cooling, separation and liquefaction respectively. Process configuration, thermodynamic analysis, optimization model with GA is conducted. The specific power consumption of the multistage multicycle cascade system is within 14.0–17.4 kWh/kmol (feed gas). The proposed process can be used in the efficient utilization of industrial by-products with high exergy efficiency (33.6%∼41.45%) and great economic benefits.

From Shale to Ship: The Potential for Lower Carbon U.S. LNG Production

From Shale to Ship: The Potential for Lower Carbon U.S. LNG Production

Financial Feasibility Assessment for PT ABC LNG Production Facility Expansion Plan

PT ABC is an LNG producer that has been producing a reliable LNG for its customers since 2013. Initial GSA with upstream parties is set to be expired in 2026, however, recent development indicates that upstream parties have secured PSC extension for another 20 years. Considering this development, PT ABC is considering an opportunity to secure a long-term gas supply that enables production capacity expansion which will create additional revenue and improve plant reliability. A technical feasibility study has been performed and 2 options with estimated construction time of 30 months are considered feasible. This final project aims to provide a financial feasibility assessment of the production capacity expansion project with capital budgeting and risk assessment technique. Capital budgeting analysis using base case scenario indicates that both options will provide additional value to DSLNG with an estimated NPV 52.1 MUSD, IRR 20.57%, DPBP 9.4 years, and PI 1.52 for Option 1, and estimated NPV 117.8 MUSD, IRR 28.77%, DPBP 8.62 years, and PI 2.68 for Option 2. However, this study also found that some variables are affecting the project financial feasibility significantly, such as LNG and feed gas price, plant availability, Capex realization and long-term debt interest rate. Monte Carlo simulation shows that the project has a probability of success (NPV > 0) of 54.24% for Option 1 and 65.80% for Option 2.

Simulation and technical, economic, and environmental analyses of natural gas liquefaction cycle using different configurations

This paper aims to improve the performance of the simple C3MR natural gas liquefaction cycle from the thermodynamic, economic, and environmental aspects. Four processes are proposed where the first system uses heat recovery with the ORC cycle and boil-off gas cooling, and the second proposed plant uses the first plant with a distillation tower added for the separation of ethane plus and simultaneous production of NGL/LNG. The third scenario adds a Proton Exchange Membrane, gas turbine cycle, steam turbine, and electrolyzer to the second scenario. And the fourth scenario is in which a Rankine ammonia cycle is added to the structure of the second scenario to recover more wasted heat. Regarding exergy analysis, the third scenario represents 64.32% exergetic efficiency, while the base, 1st, 2nd, and 4th scenarios have 35.4, 47.35, 12.64%, and 17.1% exergetic efficiency, respectively. The LNG production requires 260.76, 941, 469, and 893 kWh/ tonLNG energy for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th scenarios. According to the economic analysis, the first scenario with 0.0034 $/kg total cost rate of products has the best economic performance compared to 0.0037, 0.042, 0.059 $/kg, and 0.055 total cost rate of products for the base, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th scenarios, respectively. The environmental assessment results reveal that the first scenario with 72,567 kgCO2/h has the minimum CO2 emission. The overall results indicate that the first scenario is the best, but considering the trigeneration, the third scenario is a proper system.

New insights into the modeling of low-temperature phase equilibria involving molecular solids: Focus on the systems of interest for the LNG production

A common approach for calculating the solubility of a pure solid former in a solvent at solid-fluid equilibrium is based on the coupling of two models: one for the fluid phase and another for the solid phase. One of the main drawbacks encountered when applying this approach is the fact that the parameters of the selected fluid-phase model are usually regressed with respect to fluid-fluid equilibria occurring at high temperatures (typically higher than the triple-point temperature of the heaviest component in the mixture). Therefore, their utilization at low temperatures challenges the functional forms and the parameters of these models and thus the reliability of the results. In this work, the possibility of improving the representation of the solid-fluid equilibria of binary mixtures of interest in natural gas liquefaction when a cubic equation of state (as the Peng-Robinson equation of state) is coupled with the classical approach for the solid phase is presented and discussed. Firstly, a new method for the regression of the kij in the low-temperature region based on pseudo-experimental activity coefficients calculated from solid-liquid equilibrium data is presented. For the systems and the cubic equation of state under investigation, the regressed kij show no significant temperature dependence and are continuous when crossing the triple-point temperature of the solid former in the mixture, namely when passing from the fluid-fluid to solid-fluid equilibria. Based on these results, the possibility of predicting the solid-fluid equilibrium using a constant kij regressed on the low-temperature fluid-fluid equilibrium data has been evaluated, and satisfactory results have been obtained.

Comparative Analysis of the Refrigeration of Natural Gas Using Propane PreCooled Mixed Refrigerant and C1 -C3 Cascade Refrigerant

The liquefied natural gas remains the most viable means of global distribution of natural gas. Unfortunately, the liquefying process consumes high amount of energy impacting negatively on the economic viability of the LNG business. Based on this, the current work assesses the selection of propane pre-cooled mixed refrigerant [C3 MR] and methane, ethane and propane [C1 -C3 ] refrigerant cascade system as a refrigerant with essential benefits in LNG production. The process was simulated using Aspen HYSYS, and its economic tool was used to carry out the techno economic analysis and estimate the duties of the two processes. The results obtained showed that the production cost were $20,345,490 and $114,796,200 for C1 -C3 cascade refrigeration system and C3 MR, respectively. The duty were 568.721 MW and 626.462 MW for the C1 -C3 cascade refrigeration system and C3MR, respectively. This shows that C1 -C3 cascade refrigeration system performed better than the C3 MR. Therefore, the former refrigerant is preferred in a liquefying process than the latter as it is cheaper, consumes less amount of energy and is more environmentally friendly.