Attack Livestock Research Articles

English

Among baboon species, Papio anu­bis is the most broadly dis­trib­uted species, rang­ing through most of cen­tral sub-Sa­ha­ran of Africa. Papio anubis live in troops but the size varies in different area. There are three troops of P. anubis in Trigni forest with 149 to 180 members in each troop. The objective was to assess the abundance of Anubis baboon (AB) and their conflict with humans with respect to the livelihood of local farmers in Trigni forest of Gida Ayana district, Western Ethiopia. Counting was conducted early morning at 6:00 to 7:00 am and late afternoon at 5:00 to 6:00 pm when the baboons were at the site of their sleeping. Six trained data collators were arranged during census of AB. These six data collators were divided into three sites (Harawa, Gendo, and Kotam cliffs). To increase accuracy and minimize error, counting was also done when the baboons left their sleeping site and went to foraging area, and in the afternoon when AB return to their sleeping site. Population count was carried out three times during each dry and wet season. For the human-anubis baboon conflict (HABC) assessment, participatory techniques were used. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods, using SPSS version 20. The dry and wet populations of AB were 484 and 511, respectively. The distance of farmland from forest edge and problems of HABC were directly correlated. Results showed that AB is physically strong enough to attack livestock. About 62.9% of the respondents indicated that they lost their livestock by AB during 2015/2016. Most of the respondents reported that they rely on dogs and children to protect AB from raiding crops and this require time and energy. The majority (78.5%) of the respondents strongly agree that habitat disturbance is the main cause of HABC in the study area. More than 93.1% of the livelihood of local farmers of Gute Gudina kebele, adjacent to the forest reserve was affected by conflict between humans and AB. AB spent most of their time along the road and entered the agricultural fields. They can also attack and injure humans especially females and babies if provoked. Therefore, leaving sufficient buffer zones between crop productions and forest that allow free movements of AB and avoid high guarding investments (easy for guarding) is recommended. Key words: Cliffs, human-wildlife conflict, Papio anubis, primate habitat.

Pastoralist herding efficiency in dealing with carnivore-livestock conflicts in the eastern Serengeti, Tanzania

ABSTRACTWild carnivores are often involved in conflicts with humans due to their predation on livestock. We investigated the herding efficiency of pastoralists in association with depredation on livestock in the Loliondo game-controlled area (LGCA), northern Tanzania, to identify specific herding practices that may reduce predation occurrence. Randomised face-to-face interviews were employed using semi-structured questionnaires. Our results indicate that all studied livestock herds were tended to by at least one herder. Despite the presence of herders, carnivores were found to attack livestock in half of the observed herds. Female herders experienced more attacks than male herders. African wild dogs and spotted hyenas most frequently attacked the livestock of the Sonjo tribe, whereas leopards and lions most frequently attacked livestock of the Maasai tribe. Herders carrying defensive equipment (knives and spears) reduced the number of successful carnivore attacks in the area. We recommend maintaining and improving the traditional livestock husbandry practices of using herders to reduce carnivore attacks. Moreover, increasing the number of adult male herders per herd and carrying gear might also help reduce such attacks. Using herders can potentially improve economic gains and livelihoods of local people and change their negative attitudes towards wild carnivores.

The impacts, characterisation and management of human–leopard conflict in a multi-use land system in South Africa

Human–carnivore conflict represents a global problem, negatively impacting carnivore populations and local livelihoods worldwide. Game farming in South Africa has increased introducing a new form of conflict due to predation on game, but is poorly understood. We contribute to this deficit by adopting an interdisciplinary research approach bringing together quantitative and qualitative data with longitudinal engagement with farmers. We assess the impacts, characteristics and management of human–leopard conflict on game and livestock in the Blouberg Mountain Range. Leopards represented 89 % of reported game attacks with the highest number of attacks on impala and 60 % of reported livestock attacks. The economic costs of leopard predation were highest for nyala compared to other game species and the financial cattle and donkey losses represented large economic costs for communal farmers compared to commercial farmers. Both farming communities experienced a reduced sense of wellbeing and for communal farmers, negative spiritual and cultural impacts. The spatial predation risk of game attacks were most affected by increasing distance to water and the risk of predation on livestock attacks increased further away from villages. Livestock attacks were associated with seasonal grazing patterns and the erosion of traditional management livestock strategies due to the economic costs of their implementation and the migrant labour system altering management roles in the community. The timing of game attacks by leopards was related to the birthing seasons for game and seasonal changes in water supply. Similarly, temporal patterns on livestock were related to the calving season and land degradation in communal areas.

Characterizing, controlling and eliminating residual malaria transmission.

Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) interventions can reduce malaria transmission by targeting mosquitoes when they feed upon sleeping humans and/or rest inside houses, livestock shelters or other man-made structures. However, many malaria vector species can maintain robust transmission, despite high coverage of LLINs/IRS containing insecticides to which they are physiologically fully susceptible, because they exhibit one or more behaviours that define the biological limits of achievable impact with these interventions: (1) Natural or insecticide-induced avoidance of contact with treated surfaces within houses and early exit from them, thus minimizing exposure hazard of vectors which feed indoors upon humans; (2) Feeding upon humans when they are active and unprotected outdoors, thereby attenuating personal protection and any consequent community-wide suppression of transmission; (3) Feeding upon animals, thus minimizing contact with insecticides targeted at humans or houses; (4) Resting outdoors, away from insecticide-treated surfaces of nets, walls and roofs. Residual malaria transmission is, therefore, defined as all forms of transmission that can persist after achieving full universal coverage with effective LLINs and/or IRS containing active ingredients to which local vector populations are fully susceptible. Residual transmission is sufficiently intense across most of the tropics to render malaria elimination infeasible without new or improved vector control methods. Many novel or improved vector control strategies to address residual transmission are emerging that either: (1) Enhance control of adult vectors that enter houses to feed and/or rest by killing, repelling or excluding them; (2) Kill or repel adult mosquitoes when they attack people outdoors; (3) Kill adult mosquitoes when they attack livestock; (4) Kill adult mosquitoes when they feed upon sugar or; (5) Kill immature mosquitoes in aquatic habitats. To date, none of these options has sufficient supporting evidence to justify full-scale programmatic implementation. Concerted investment in their rigorous selection, development and evaluation is required over the coming decade to enable control and, ultimately, elimination of residual malaria transmission. In the meantime, national programmes may assess options for addressing residual transmission under programmatic conditions through pilot studies with strong monitoring, evaluation and operational research components, similar to the Onchocerciasis Control Programme.

Conserving Carnivores: Politics in Play

In their Review “Status and ecological effects of the world's largest carnivores” (10 January, DOI: [10.1126/science.1241484][1]), W. J. Ripple et al. propose the creation of a Global Large Carnivore Initiative (GLCI) endorsed by bold commitments from politicians around the world. However, large carnivores deliver political services in addition to ecological services, and this complication may prevent a GLCI from gaining strong political commitment. Conflicts involving the political response to large carnivores raise controversial questions about land-use and political economies. The animals serve as a powerful symbol to communicate difficulties (often those that they revealed but did not create) and to influence policies. Opposing the recovery of large carnivores or limiting their populations has therefore become an inexpensive way for politicians to pose as defenders of particular interest groups that they might otherwise ignore. An illustrative example is the decline of sheep farming in France. French sheep farmers claim that wolf attacks threaten their livelihoods ([ 1 ][2]). However, this story overlooks political factors. In 1985, French Special Forces sank Greenpeace's flagship boat in Auckland harbor to prevent protests against nuclear tests. As part of the compensation, France agreed to not take measures that could hinder the import of New Zealand lambs into the European Union ([ 2 ][3]). This sudden end to France's protectionist standing has been a tough economic challenge for French sheep farming. Since the wolf naturally came back to France from Italy in 1992, some French politicians took the opportunity to stand for national sheep farming by dramatizing the impact of livestock attacks and opposing the wolf return, without addressing the ultimate market-based causes of sheep farming decline. In 2012, wolf-linked subsidies to sheep farming amounted to 8.8 € million ([ 3 ][4]), and data now reveal that sheep farming fares better in wolf regions ([ 4 ][5]). There are strong political incentives to scapegoat large carnivores. We recommend developing a better understanding of the political ecology of large carnivore conservation. 1. [↵][6] 1. S. Sayare , “As wolves return to French Alps, a way of life is threatened,” New York Times, 4 September 2013, p. A4. 2. [↵][7] 1. C. Harding , Singapore Yearbook Int. Law 10, 99 (2006); . [OpenUrl][8] 3. [↵][9] Ministere de l'Ecologie de Developpement Durable et de l'Energie, Ministere de l'Agriculture de l'Agroalimentaire et de la Foret, “Plan d'Action National Loup 2013–2017” (Paris, 2013); [www.loup.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/130830\_PLAN\_LOUP_2013-2.pdf][10]. 4. [↵][11] 1. L. Garde 1. L. Garde , in Loup et Elevage: S'Ouvrir a la Complexite: CERPAM—Centre d'Etudes et de Realisations Pastorales Alpes Mediterranee, L. Garde , Ed. (CERPAM, Manosque, France, 2007), pp. 14–20. [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1241484 [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #ref-3 [5]: #ref-4 [6]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [7]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [8]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DSingapore%2BYearbook%2BInt.%2BLaw%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D99%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [9]: #xref-ref-3-1 View reference 3 in text [10]: http://www.loup.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/130830_PLAN_LOUP_2013-2.pdf [11]: #xref-ref-4-1 View reference 4 in text

Spatial Assessment of Attitudes Toward Tigers in Nepal

In many regions around the world, wildlife impacts on people (e.g., crop raiding, attacks on people) engender negative attitudes toward wildlife. Negative attitudes predict behaviors that undermine wildlife management and conservation efforts (e.g., by exacerbating retaliatory killing of wildlife). Our study (1) evaluated attitudes of local people toward the globally endangered tiger (Panthera tigris) in Nepal's Chitwan National Park; and (2) modeled and mapped spatial clusters of attitudes toward tigers. Factors characterizing a person's position in society (i.e., socioeconomic and cultural factors) influenced attitudes toward tigers more than past experiences with tigers (e.g., livestock attacks). A spatial cluster of negative attitudes toward tigers was associated with concentrations of people with less formal education, people from marginalized ethnic groups, and tiger attacks on people. Our study provides insights and descriptions of techniques to improve attitudes toward wildlife in Chitwan and many regions around the world with similar conservation challenges.

Differences in stakeholder perceptions of the jaguar Panthera onca and puma Puma concolor in the tropical lowlands of Guatemala

AbstractWe conducted a survey questionnaire to assess and compare public perceptions and knowledge of jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor among two stakeholder groups likely to come into conflict with these large carnivores: cattle ranchers living near protected areas and inhabitants of two villages located within the multiple-use forest of the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. We tested whether stakeholder group (i.e. rancher or villager) or previous experience with livestock attacks by carnivores predicted a negative perception of jaguars and pumas. The odds of people fearing an attack on humans by these felids and of recognizing the ecological importance of these species was best explained by stakeholder group. Villagers exhibited a more negative perception towards these felids than did cattle ranchers. Our results highlight the importance of tailoring conservation programmes in high risk areas to the needs of specific stakeholder groups. Further research is needed to understand which factors (i.e. ecological settings, socio-economic differences) best explain these differences and whether these differences in perception vary within groups. Programmes that work with local people to assess the ecological importance of large predators and the true risks of carnivore attacks on livestock and humans along with low-cost conflict mitigation measures should be implemented to increase the level of tolerance towards these carnivores.

Predation on livestock by large carnivores in the tropical lowlands of Guatemala

AbstractConflict with humans is a significant source of mortality in carnivore populations yet information on this issue is lacking for some areas where threatened carnivores such as the jaguarPanthera oncainteract with humans. We interviewed cattle ranchers to examine patterns of predation on livestock by carnivores in the tropical lowlands of Guatemala and to determine if the ranchers applied management practices recommended to prevent such predation by large felids. Additionally, we compared ranches with and without attacks on livestock to determine whether ranch characteristics and landscape structure near ranches explains the variations in the occurrence of livestock predation by carnivores. Cattle losses to carnivores represented 0.7% of the cattle stock in all ranches surveyed. Jaguars were most often accused of livestock attacks (suggesting a negative perception of this felid in the area), followed by pumasPuma concolorand coyotesCanis latrans. Males and smaller cattle were most often attacked and general patterns of attacks on livestock were similar to sites previously studied in the neotropics. Landscape structure around ranches (e.g. forest cover, distance to forest, bodies of water and human settlements) best explained the probability of predation on livestock. Outreach programmes and conflict mitigation measures need to be implemented for those ranches that are distant from human settlements but near forest cover and water sources. The co-occurrence of predation by jaguars, pumas and coyotes is particular to Mesoamerica and conflict mitigation strategies proposed in studies elsewhere may need to be altered, and evaluated, to be effective in this region.

Translocation as a Tool for Mitigating Conflict with Leopards in Human-Dominated Landscapes of India

We examined the efficacy of a translocation program in which large numbers of leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) were trapped in human-dominated landscapes where livestock attacks were common and human attacks rare and released into adjoining forested areas in an attempt to reduce leopard presence and mitigate conflicts at the capture site. In the year starting in February of 2001, 29 leopards were captured in the human-dominated rural landscape of the Junnar region (4275 km(2) , 185 people/km(2) ), Maharashtra, India, and released an average of 39.5 km away in adjoining forests. Eleven leopards were also relocated to the same forests from other districts. Prior to the large-scale translocation program, an average of four leopard attacks on humans occurred each year between 1993 and 2001. After the translocation program was initiated, the average increased substantially to 17 attacks. Linear and logistic models showed that attack frequency increased in Junnar following nearby releases of leopards and decreased when leopards were removed for releases far away; that attacks became more lethal when the number of leopards introduced from other districts increased; and that attacks were most likely to occur in the regions where the largest number of leopards had been introduced from other areas. These results suggest that leopards did not stay at the release sites and that translocation induced attacks on people. Potential explanations for these results include increased aggression induced by stress of the translocation process, movement through unfamiliar human-dominated landscapes following release, and loss of fear of humans due to familiarity with humans acquired during captivity. Our results show that reactive solutions to attacks on humans by leopards, such as translocation, could in fact increase human-leopard conflict. Measures to reduce human-carnivore conflicts may include more effective compensation procedures to pay livestock owners for the loss of animals to predation by carnivores, providing better methods of protection for livestock, and encouraging greater social acceptance of the presence of carnivores in human-dominated landscapes.

Decline of Raptors over a Three-Year Period in Laikipia, Central Kenya

Raptors were monitored monthly over a three-year period in a protected area in central Kenya. The number of raptors declined more than 40% per year. Scavenging birds accounted for most of the decline; sightings decreased by 70% during our surveys, although these declines were not statistically significant. During the time of the study, the overall populations of large wild herbivores showed little change, whereas domestic herbivores, particularly sheep and goats, increased markedly, suggesting that food limitation was not the cause of the vulture declines at the study site. Possible causes of raptor decline include the consumption of poisoned baits, which are placed by pastoralists to kill large predators that attack livestock. Scavenging birds provide one of the most important yet underappreciated ecosystem services of any avian group. The rapid decline of scavenging birds, especially vultures, in central Kenya warrants additional population monitoring to understand whether declines are local or regional, and to elucidate causes of population decreases.

Livestock predation by lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and their vulnerability to retaliatory killing in the Maasai steppe, Tanzania

AbstractThe African lion Panthera leo, spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta and leopard Panthera pardus are all killed in retaliation for livestock predation, but each species suffers differently from these impacts due to differences in predatory behavior and cultural attitudes of pastoralists. Using detailed data on livestock predation in the Maasai steppe landscape in Northern Tanzania, I investigated how prey preference, location and timing of livestock attacks contributed to the vulnerability of lions, leopards and spotted hyenas to retaliatory killing. Lions mostly preyed upon adult cattle and donkeys. In contrast, hyenas and leopards primarily killed small stock (goat, sheep and calves) and dogs. Hyenas and leopards mostly attacked livestock at night, whereas lions often attacked grazing livestock during the daytime. These behaviors made lions the most vulnerable to direct retaliatory killing, although some villages specifically targeted hyenas with poison, and the cultural traditions of pastoralists also exacerbate the retaliatory killing of lions. I highlight the complex interactions of social (human) and ecological dimensions of livestock predation and retaliation against predators. Any conservation intervention should strive to address human–carnivore conflicts at the appropriate social scale.

Co-Managing Human–Wildlife Conflicts: A Review

Conservationists recognize the need to work beyond protected areas if they are to sustain viable populations of wildlife. But ambitious plans to extend wildlife corridors beyond protected areas must consider the economic and political implications when wildlife forage on crops, attack livestock, or otherwise threaten human security. Traditionally, humans respond by killing “problem” wildlife and transforming wild habitats to prevent further losses. This traditional response, however, is now illegal or socially unacceptable in many areas, changing a simple competitive relationship between people and wildlife into a political conflict. Here we draw from experience in Bolivia, Uganda, and Wisconsin to outline a strategy for mitigating human–wildlife conflict based on participatory methods and co-management with twin objectives of wildlife conservation and safeguarding human security. Incorporating local stakeholders as partners in planning and implementation can help to win space for wildlife beyond protected area boundaries. We also show why systematic study of local people's perceptions of risk and participant planning of interventions are irreplaceable components of such projects.

Simulating the impact of socio-economic trends on threatened Iberian wolf populations Canis lupus signatus in north-eastern Portugal

Abstract The IP4 highway and the new projected road network have been changing the critical Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) habitat in Tras-os-Montes e Alto Douro region (north-eastern Portugal). A holistic stochastic dynamic methodology (SDM) was developed for predicting changes in Iberian wolf population due to the new highways construction, increasing road traffic density and urbanization. The ecological indicators for wolf presence and abundance were estimated indirectly from the density of attacks on livestock. The low density of wild ungulates in the area makes livestock the main source of food for wolves. These indirect ecological indicators and state variables are the underlying database of our SDM model. This model focus on the interactions between conceptually isolated key-components, such as the density of attacks on livestock and changes in habitat conditions, providing some basis to analyse the responses of wolf populations to the environmental scenarios that will characterize the region in the future. The model proposed was preceded by a conventional multivariate statistical procedure (stepwise multiple regression analysis) performed to discriminate the significant relationships between livestock attacks and socio-environmental variables. The holistic parameters of the model were estimated from the results of the statistical treatment and from regional data regarding tendencies within the use of land. The simulation results demonstrate the SDM capability in capturing the trends of this changing region, namely by showing a dramatically decrease of wolf attacks in the region for the next decade.

Spatial, temporal, and physical characteristics of livestock depredations by large carnivores along a Kenyan reserve border

Most large mammalian carnivores are in global decline, largely due to their involvement in livestock depredation. Research that advances our understanding of predator–livestock interactions is crucial to conflict mitigation and carnivore conservation. Here we investigated the influence of environmental and socio-ecological factors on livestock depredation by carnivores in pastoral villages adjacent to the Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya during a 14-month period. We attempted to identify factors associated with temporal and spatial variation in depredation rates, incorporating data on a closely monitored spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta) population known to be involved in depredation events. Spotted hyenas, leopards ( Panthera pardus) and lions ( Panthera leo) were responsible for 53%, 32%, and 15% of attacks on livestock, respectively. Monthly depredation frequency was correlated positively with rainfall and negatively with natural prey abundance. Radio-telemetry revealed that hyenas defending a group territory within the Reserve spent more time outside the Reserve during months when hyena attacks on livestock were most frequent. Results of logistic regression models, which indicated spotted hyenas were most likely to attack large villages, were supported by behavioral observations of hyenas near villages. Leopards however, selected villages that were spatially isolated from other villages. Hyenas were more likely to attack livestock enclosures constructed of local bush material than those of more sturdy “pole” timber, but use of pole material more than doubled the probability of leopard attack. Selection of fence type should therefore depend on the size and relative isolation of villages. Overall, improved fences, more watch dogs, and high levels of human activity were not associated with lower livestock losses to predators.

Cattle ranchers' attitudes to conflicts with jaguar Panthera onca in the Pantanal of Brazil

Across its range in Latin America the jaguar Panthera onca is threatened by habitat loss and through conflict with people. In the Pantanal of Brazil, where large areas of land are devoted to cattle ranching, jaguars often attack livestock and are persecuted by ranchers. However, the extent to which livestock predation and/or other socio-economic factors affect ranchers' tolerance of jaguars is unclear. This study examined ranchers' attitudes towards jaguars and conservation in the northern Pantanal in order to identify ways of resolving jaguar-rancher conflict. The results suggest that most respondents supported the conservation of the Pantanal but that attitudes towards jaguars were mixed and difficult to predict on the basis of socio-economic factors. Attitudes towards jaguars were more closely related to respondents' age and relative wealth than to jaguar-related benefits through tourism or costs through cattle predation. Whilst efforts to reduce cattle losses are needed, it may be equally as important for conservation initiatives to focus on the inherent appreciation of the natural value of the Pantanal within this ranching community.

Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional population impacts

Large carnivores have declined worldwide, largely through conflict with people. Here, we quantify the impact of lethal control, associated with livestock depredation, on a population of African lions (Panthera leo) living outside protected areas. Farmers shot lions only in response to livestock attacks. Nevertheless, adult mortality was high and a simple model predicted that the population was marginally stable or slowly declining. Mortality was four times higher among lions radio-collared in association with attacks on livestock, than among lions with no known history of stock killing, suggesting that some animals were habitual stock killers. Known stock killers also experienced lower reproductive success; hence there was strong artificial selection against stock-killing behaviour. In addition, mortality was higher among lions whose home ranges overlapped a property where non-traditional livestock husbandry was associated with chronic depredation by lions. This 180 km2 ranch acted as a sink that directly affected lions over more than 2000 km2 and may have undermined the viability of the study population. Our results suggest that sustainable coexistence of lions and people demands livestock husbandry that effectively deters predators from acquiring stock-killing behaviour, but that lethal control may play an important role in avoiding the spread of such behaviours through the population.

Electronic aversive conditioning for managing wolf predation

Author(s): Shivik, John A.; Asher, Val; Bradley, Liz; Kunkel, Kyran; Phillips, Mike; Breck, Stewart; Bangs, Ed | Abstract: Electronic training collars have previously been used to condition captive predators not to attack livestock and other prey, but the use of aversive collars in actual management situations involving wild predators has not been scientifically evaluated and published. We adapted and tested commercially available dog training collars in an actual management situation involving wild wolves. Because we temporarily held wolves in captivity, we also discuss the use of pens as a tool that provides management flexibility. Three packs that had been implicated in killing livestock were held at a pen facility at the Flying D Ranch near Bozeman, Montana. Wolves from 2 packs were used in training collar experiments. We ran trials using bison calves, domestic cow calves, and hides to test equipment and the behavioral conditioning paradigm. In our program, we were unable to condition wolves not to attack livestock because of a variety of logistical and behavioral reasons. We concluded that temporarily holding wolves at a small, moderately accessible facility is of limited use for determining the utility of aversive conditioning as a wolf predation management technique. More research is necessary to effectively apply electronic training collars to wolf management. However, we determined that maintaining holding pens for wolves provides flexibility to managers in translocation efforts. Because wolves in our studies survived to reproduce, our collaborative efforts have made a significant contribution to wolf recovery.

Aspects of Coyote Predation on Angora Goats

A study to assess characteristics of coyotes (Canis latrans Say) that attack livestock was conducted in southern New Mexico. During 4-16 April 1991, 38 Angora does (Capra hircus L.) and their 34 offspring (kids) were exposed to coyote predation in 3 small experimental free-ranging flocks on the study area. One doe and 14 kids were killed by predators, including at least 12 cases of coyote predation. Coyotes selectively preyed on the smaller kids, and on goats in relatively small groups. Remains of 11 kids killed by predators were cached within the core areas of territorial coyotes. Six of 8 territorial coyotes and 5 of 9 transients (nonterritorial coyotes), with ranges that overlapped the distribution of flocks, consumed goats.

Pathological Responses of Red Foxes to Foothold Traps

We conducted a 3-year study to document the physiological responses of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) to foothold traps. Captive-raised foxes were caught and held for either 2 or 8 hours in No. 11/ padded-jawed, foothold traps or for 8 hours in No. 11/2 unpadded traps. Free-ranging foxes were also caught in the same trap types for variable periods. Nontrapped, free-ranging foxes were used as controls. Behavior of captive foxes was video recorded; heart rate and body temperature were monitored via radio telemetry; and endocrine, biochemical, hematological, and pathological samples were collected after the trapped fox was euthanized. Foxes caught in unpadded traps had higher physical injury scores to the trapped limbs than foxes caught in padded traps (P < 0.05). Heart rate and body temperature increased rapidly after foxes were caught, but returned to mean pretrapped levels after 80 minutes. Mean time spent physically resisting the trap in an 8-hour period was 17.8 ? 6.7 (SE) and 13.3 ? 0.3% for foxes caught in unpadded and padded traps, respectively (P = 0.33). Trapped foxes generally had higher levels of adrenocorticotropin, #-endorphin, and cortisol and lower levels of thyroxine and insulin compared to control foxes (P < 0.05). Foxes caught in unpadded traps had higher cortisol, but lower P-endorphin values than foxes caught in padded traps (P < 0.05). Trapped foxes also had higher levels of bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) than control foxes (P < 0.05). Foxes caught in unpadded traps had higher values for ALP, AST, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase than foxes caught in padded traps (P < 0.05). Trapped foxes also had higher leukocyte counts than nontrapped foxes with a significant neutrophilia and leukopenia (P < 0.05). Trapped foxes had higher incidences of adrenal gland and kidney congestion as well as adrenal gland, lung, and heart hemorrhage relative to control foxes (P < 0.05). Most of the changes were consistent with the physical exertion of resisting the trap, and none appeared life-threatening. Overall, padded-jawed traps caused less trauma to red foxes than unpadded traps. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 54(1):147-160 Trapping with steel foothold traps provides significant income and recreational value for about 600,000 North Americans (Todd and Boggess 1987). Foothold traps are also the primary means used by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to control coyotes (Canis latrans) and wolves (Canis lupus) that attack livestock (Olsen et al. 1986). For almost a century, however, antitrapping groups have sought to ban foothold traps in the United States and Canada. Over 450 antitrapping bills have been introduced in state legislatures and the Federal Congress since 1900 (Gentile 1987). In the face of escalating antitrapping initiatives, the fur industry has developed trapping systems that reduce injury to the furbearer. Recent research has concentrated on padded-jawed traps (Tullar 1984; Linhart et al. 1986; Olsen et al. 1986, 1988; Linscombe and Wright 1988). Such traps, equipped with padded jaws, center swivels, reduced spring tension, and shock-absorbing coil springs in the chain, significantly reduced leg injuries in red foxes (Tullar 1984, Olsen et al. 1988). Whereas previous research investigated effects on the trapped limb, there are also surprise, fear, pain, and physical exertion in an animal's reaction to being trapped. Any of these could result in detectable tissue lesions depending on the degree and duration of response. Being trapped can be considered a stressor which activates predictable physiological responses (Moberg 1985). It is thus important to look at indices of an animal's internal milieu to better define its total response to being trapped. To understand physiological responses to restraint and to assess differences in these responses relative to different traps, we conducted research for 3 years on red foxes. Our objectives were to examine the behavioral, physiological, endocrine, biochemical, and pathological responses of both free-ranging and captive red foxes caught by unpadded and padded-jawed foothold traps as well as to compare such responses with those of untrapped foxes. This study was financed by the Fur Institute of Canada. We are indebted to A. B. Sargeant, J. M. Callow, and staff, Northern Prairie Wild-