Livelihood Activities Research Articles

Farmers’ livelihood resilience and its optimisation path in world heritage sites: a Chinese case study

ABSTRACT In the context of global environmental change and tourism market volatility, the livelihood resilience in World Heritage Site (WHS) faces serious challenges. We designed a combinatorial assessment model aimed at analyzing and enhancing the household livelihood resilience in WHS. By combining barrier degree model and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis, we provide an identification of the key factors determining the livelihood resilience in WHS and selects Yulong River National Area in Guangxi, China, as a case site. Results suggested that (i) The livelihood resilience in WHS is generally low, with relatively high self-organization capacity, medium levels of psychological perception and buffer capacity, and the weakest learning capacity; (ii) The Livelihood Resilience Index varies according to the type of main livelihood activity of the household, which is ranked in ascending order as tourism livelihood, worker livelihood, farming livelihood, and multi-income source livelihood; (iii) On different livelihood dimensions, buffer capacity has the most significant impact among tourism livelihood and farming livelihood, while self-organization capacity plays a key role among farming livelihood and multi-income source livelihood. In addition, the size of tourism operated house, voice in rural tourism development, social connectivity and household educational inputs were the major barriers to livelihood resilience among all types of households; (iv) Through configurational analysis, we further reveal three main pathways for achieving high livelihood resilience.

Deepening youth precarity: How the COVID‐19 pandemic impacted the livelihoods and mobility pathways of rural youth in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

AbstractIndonesia's young people renegotiate the constraints on rural‐based livelihood opportunities by participating in a diverse array of off‐farm activities, circular migration, and rural to urban mobility flows. While these strategies work to overcome the insecurity of farm‐based work, they can also introduce new forms of precarity, which are compounded when other major life events or crises occur. Drawing on a period of in‐depth qualitative research with two villages in South Sulawesi, we describe how young people were impacted by, and responded to, the mobility and trade restrictions on their daily livelihood activities during the fallout of the COVID‐19 pandemic. Travel restrictions and company layoffs forced some young people to return to their villages, where they faced limited employment prospects, while other young people remained isolated or idle in urban settings and unable to return home. Furthermore, fluctuating commodity prices and an absence of buyers for agricultural and seafood commodities led to even fewer opportunities in rural areas. The impacts of the pandemic were also gendered, as young women faced increased demands for unpaid care work, while also stepping into new markets (e.g., ginger powder) or retail work, to counter the loss of household incomes and return of male migrants. In the context of broad‐scale landscape change, declining rural opportunities, and precarious work contracts in urban areas and resource frontiers, our findings exemplify how the economic fallout of the COVID‐19 pandemic represents just one of the many crises that rural youth contend with on a daily basis.

The Livelihood Activities of the Ruc People in Vietnam have Shifted from Traditional Ecological Adaptation to Facing Challenges Caused by Environmental Changes

Background and objective: This article examines the transformation of the livelihoods of the Ruc people, a minority ethnic group in Vietnam, as they shift from traditional agriculture—adapted to their natural environment—to new livelihood activities while confronting environmental challenges. The study aims to understand how natural and social environmental changes impact the livelihoods of the Ruc people and to explore their adaptation strategies.Methods: The research employs participant observation and in-depth interviews within the community to gather detailed data. The theoretical framework of political ecology in new ecological anthropology is applied to analyze the intricate relationships between humans and their environment, along with the influence of economic, cultural, and political factors on the Ruc people's livelihoods.Results: The results indicate that state policies have led to fundamental changes in the livelihoods of the Ruc people, contributing to the stabilization and development of their way of life. However, the community also faces challenges due to fluctuations in the natural and social environment. Forest protection regulations and climate change have significantly impacted the traditional farming and livestock practices of the Ruc people. These factors have decreased agricultural productivity, land scarcity, and conflicts over land use. The Ruc community faces major challenges in maintaining their traditional livelihoods under increasing pressure from environmental changes.Conclusion: The study highlights the importance of developing supportive policies to assist the Ruc people in effectively transitioning their livelihoods. Specific interventions are needed to support sustainable livelihoods while preserving Ruc's ecological knowledge and cultural identity. The findings and recommendations from this research are valuable for designing sustainable development programs for minority communities in Vietnam, especially in the context of increasing climate change and environmental challenges.

Knowledge About Environmental Dynamics and Attitude Towards Conservation of Saiwa Wetland, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya

Wetlands are important ecosystems for ecological, social and economic value. Despite their importance, wetlands are under serious threat due to anthropogenic factors, such as intensified agriculture. We conducted a study to assess the knowledge and attitudes towards conservation of Saiwa Swamp in Trans-Nzoia County Kenya. The study used a mixed-methods approach to collect data through household surveys, key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Household survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-Square while key informant and FGDs data were analyzed under thematic areas. The findings reveal that the respondents are aware of the interrelatedness of their activities and the natural resources of the environment. They understand that besides biodiversity conservation, the swamp plays an important role in providing the community with livelihoods, cultural and economic needs. The findings also establish they are aware that their livelihood activities threaten the swamp. Therefore, protecting and managing the Saiwa swamp ecosystem is essential for the well-being of both present and future generations. For sustainability of both the swamp and community livelihoods, the County and National government should work together with all stakeholders to create and establish a culture of stewardship and collective responsibility among local communities. More importantly, the community should be involved in designing conservation interventions as a key to ensuring adoption and implementation.

Household livelihood diversification and its determinant factors in Robe town and its surrounding hinterlands, Bale zone, southeast Ethiopia

Livelihood diversification is a set of activities that households engage in to generate revenue, and sustain life, or maximize financial benefit. This study examined the impact of rural-urban connectivity on household income diversification into farm and non-farm businesses, as well as the underlying driving factors in Robe Town’s hinterland, Bale Zone, Southeastern Ethiopia. Structured survey questions, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data. A total of 260 samples were taken, representing 5% of households in hinterland villages within a 20-kilometre radius. Both multiple linear regression and descriptive statistics were utilized to analyze the data. According to the descriptive statistics, 40% of the 260 households generated income from non-farm sources. The data also showed that most households (84.3%) earned their income from agricultural activities. It was further revealed that income generated from non-farm businesses accounted for 16.3% of the total household income share. The average Simpson Diversity Index (SDI) for household livelihood income source diversification was 0.5087, indicating a modest level of livelihood diversity. In the hinterland, 21.9% of households have less diverse income sources, while 58.5% and 19.6% have moderately and highly diverse income sources, respectively. Landholding size, education level, irrigation use, harvesting of forest products, non-farm activities, Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU), farm commercialization, and rural-urban linkages are statistically significant drivers of farm households’ livelihood diversification (P < 0.05). The findings have policy implications; therefore, they call for expanding rural services, rural non-farm businesses, and improved linkages between rural and urban areas to facilitate the development of a portfolio of livelihood activities that sustain life, foster wealth creation, initiate vibrant inclusive socioeconomic development in the region, and ultimately reduce poverty.

Exploring Migration as a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Agro-pastoralists in Kasulu District: Benefits and Challenges

Migration is acknowledged, promoted and widely regarded as one of the adaptation strategies to environmental change in different parts of Africa. However, its benefits and challenges have not been contextually examined and exhaustively analysed. This study employed the push and pull migration theory to investigate opportunities and challenges that result from migration to understand its strengths and weaknesses, and how its implications are linked to issues of migrants’ climate change adaptations in Kasulu District, Tanzania. Purposive sampling was used to select the study district, participants for focus group discussion, and key informants. Observation, key informant interviews and six separate FGDs were conducted to both agro-pastoralists and farmers. The findings demonstrate that agro-pastoralists exploited opportunities in the places of destination through asset accumulation and by performing different livelihood activities. However, in pursuit of their livelihoods they also contributed to resource degradation and conflicts with local farmers; which were a result of the migrants’ inappropriate integration in the host society, and were influenced by different actors, including individuals from both host and migrant communities, as well as institutions in host societies. All this challenges the notion that agro-pastoralists migration is an effective form of adaptation to environmental change in general, and climate change in particular. Migration has a potential of being an effective climate change adaptation strategy; however, it requires the government to coordinate the movement and regulate its activities to reduce conflicts with host communities, as well as resource degradation.

Livelihood diversification strategies and food security in the Weaving-based livelihood system of Gamo Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Background Livelihood diversification involves households earning through various economic activities, such as non-farm businesses, entrepreneurship, and off-farm jobs, improving sustainability, resilience, risk sharing, employment opportunities, and reducing poverty and food insecurity. However, little research has been done on the status, factors and relation of livelihood diversification and food security. This study explores the relationship between food security and livelihood diversification in the Chencha district of southern Ethiopia, focusing on determinants and their connection with household food security. Methods Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 303 randomly selected households using surveys, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. Data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics, Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, Ordered probit regression and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Results The result revealed that subsistence farming (52.1%) and weaving (38.6%) activities were reported as the primary and secondary main income sources of households. A majority of households (90.7%) diversified their livelihood. Based on income share, non-farm, on-farm, and off-farm income sources contributed, 72.96%, 25.3%, and 1.74% of total household income, respectively. Formal employment, weaving, barber/hairdresser, cattle production and sale, cereal production, and vegetable production (Potato) were highly paying livelihood activities in order. Households who combined on-farm, off-farm, and non-farm have gained far larger mean income followed by on-farm and non-farm strategies. Ordered Probit model results showed that landholding size, livestock holding size, and access to farmer training center (FTC) have positively affected the extent of livelihood diversification. Positive association was found between livelihood diversification and the food security status of households. Conclusion thus, the majority of weaving-based livelihood groups diversify their livelihood activities to on-farm, off-farm, and non-farm activities. Hence, supporting the weaving activity and motivating females’ participation, increasing other livelihood options, and modernizing the system with appropriate training, education, and market linkage seems inevitable.

Agricultural Sci-Tech Innovation Assistance for Food Security and Sustainability to Taal Volcano’s Internally Displaced Population in Batangas

On 12 January 2020, the Department of Science and Technology’s Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) raised Alert Level from 1 to 4 (out of 5) after increasing activity of Taal Volcano in Batangas. The eruption has resulted in development challenges and problems such as increased poverty, limited livelihood opportunities faced by farmers which manifest the serious impact of the eruption on the ways of living and the livelihood activities. Thus, this project formulated in which a series of workshop and training skills where conducted to assess, develop and implement an action plan for rehabilitating the farm of the affected residents of Batangas, primarily at the municipality of Talisay, Balete, San Nicolas, Laurel, Agoncillo, and Ibaan. The participants were chosen by the Local Government Unit and composed mostly of members of 4P’s and farmers. The beneficiaries were already in a difficult situation not only because of the recent eruption of Taal Volcano that rendered some of them homeless and unemployed but also because of the COVID-19 which aggravated the situation. Based on the initial assessment, it was found out that agricultural livelihood and property were heavily damaged by the eruption. Moreover, the said assessment led the project team to identify initial livelihood training’s that can be introduced to the affected communities. These trainings’ included household opportunities through vegetable production, processing and organic concoction production to rehabilitate the soil from acidity due to sulfur deposition during volcanic eruption. Rehabilitation and recovery plan were also considered to capacitate the farmers.

Effect of Contraventions of Building Regulations and Informal Land Subdivision on the Quality of Built Environment in Enugu State, Nigeria

The study examined the effect of contraventions of building regulations and informal land subdivision on the quality of built environment in Enugu State. The study adopted survey design and was carried out in Enugu State, Nigeria. The population for the study was 88 respondents which comprised 36 building technology lecturers and 52 building technology lab technologists from the Department of Building Technology in Enugu State University of Technology and the Department of Industrial Technical Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka respectively. Due to the manageable size of the population, no sampling was done as the entire population was used as the sample of the study. The instrument for data collection was a 37-item structured questionnaire which was validated by 3 experts. A total of 88 copies of the instrument were administered to the respondents by the researchers with the help of 2 research assistants. The instrument was analyzed using weighted mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance, using t-test statistics. The study found that contraventions of building regulations and informal land subdivisions in Enugu State have greatly affected the built environment negatively. The study recommends that the local authorities in Enugu State should create awareness campaigns on community planning which will be strengthened during plan implementations by capacitating the local leaders in order to reserve and maintain spaces for construction projects and agriculture based livelihood activities.

Urban expansion and livelihood dynamics in peri‐urban Tamale, Ghana

AbstractAt the heart of this paper are concerns for food security and sustainability—two challenges of wide relevance for geographers. Our work focuses specifically on the Guinea northern savanna ecological zone of Ghana, where poverty is grim and livelihood opportunities are limited and the intersection of urban expansion and livelihood dynamics is not well understood. This study analysed trends in and effects of urban expansion on farmers’ livelihoods in four peri‐urban communities around Tamale in the Republic of Ghana. The study employed a mixed methods design comprising quantitative and qualitative methods. It used geospatial techniques, secondary data, and a qualitative study involving 56 heads of households and seven key informants. Results indicate that while the surface area of farmlands reduced by 77% from 1996 to 2023, urban or built‐up areas increased by 93% in the same period. Findings show that while urban expansion reduced the sizes of farmlands, households’ agricultural output, and income, it created nonfarm livelihood opportunities for some households. To minimise the effects of urbanisation‐induced arable land shrinkage, affected households adopted three strategies: agricultural intensification, agricultural diversification, and adoption of nonfarm livelihood activities. Key policy initiatives by the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly are needed to protect agricultural lands to stem declining agricultural production and to ensure livelihood sustainability in the metropolis.

Perspectives of Agricultural Students at the University for Development Studies on Farming as a Livelihood in Ghana

The study aims to examine the perceptions of agriculture students in a Ghanaian University regarding farming as a sustainable livelihood after graduation. This study is grounded in the structuration theory. The target respondents for the study consisted of 105 final-year agriculture students from the Faculty of Agriculture. A total of 83 students were considered for the sample size which was determined using the Yamane (1967) sample size determination formula. The study adopted a descriptive survey design, anchored in the positivist paradigm. The study used a structured questionnaire for data collection. Descriptive statistics were employed for data analysis. The results revealed that a significant proportion of the students (46.1%) resided in rural areas where agriculture is the primary livelihood activity. Also, the study revealed that about 38.2% of the participants expressed willingness to grow food crops for their livelihood. The findings of the study further revealed that working in an educational institution (Mean= 3.0) was the most preferred livelihood option among participants. The study revealed that the major challenge deterring participants from pursuing farming as a sustainable livelihood is a lack of initial capital to start farming, with 67.1% of participants indicating this as a demotivating factor. The study recommended that government and other stakeholders should provide the necessary incentives in agriculture to arouse students' interest in taking up agriculture-related careers after graduation as a means of livelihood in Ghana.

Unmasking the dynamics of intergenerational learning: an ethnographic study of two rural communities in Malawi

ABSTRACT This paper explores the form of intergenerational learning taking place in rural communities in Malawi within the context of changing family structures. It is based on an ethnographic study conducted in Chipanga and Ndemanga rural communities in Malawi. The study explored the kind of intergenerational learning practices in which community members were engaged in their sources of livelihoods. Through participant observation, the researchers examined how and what knowledge and skills required in livelihood activities were passed on intergenerationally. The findings show that despite the emergence of new intergenerational relations, old forms remain key in the transfer of knowledge and skills needed in sources of livelihoods in some rural communities in Malawi. The paper argues that contextualising intergenerational learning can provide a fresh way to understand the confluence of place, time and culture.

Effects of community development programme’s initiative on livelihood activities of rural dwellers in Ondo state, Nigeria

Effects of community development programme’s initiative on livelihood activities of rural dwellers in Ondo state, Nigeria

Multifaceted Assessment of Agricultural Extension in Conflict Affected Areas of Mindanao, Philippines

Agricultural extension in conflict affected areas has received limited research attention. Yet agricultural extension undertaken within a group–based facilitation framework can have many benefits via livelihood improvement, human and social capital development. In this paper, an extension model adapted for conflict affected areas is briefly described and then assessed from multiple viewpoints – physical, economic, lifestyle, social capital and environmental. This was done in two case study sites in conflict affected areas of Mindanao, Philippines. Major positive physical, economic and lifestyle changes were revealed at both case study sites, as were changes in knowledge, attitude, skills, and aspirations and social capital. Some positive environmental aspects were also noted. Income and savings were up 64 and 108 percent respectively, with those income changes being reflected in additional expenditures on basic items such as food clothing and education. Knowledge, attitudes skills and aspirations (which can be regarded as intermediate steps towards livelihood improvement) all increased substantially. Various social capital indicators were judged to have improved. From an environmental perspective, there were decreases in charcoal production and slash and burn activity. Tree planting and soil fertility increased. Most of these assessment parameters, but especially social capital with its implication for trust and human interaction, are relevant to peace building. With the passage of the Bangsamoro Organic Law, there is expected to be a strong increase within the Philippines and internationally in funding the promotion of agricultural livelihood activities in Mindanao. The multifaced assessment of benefits is somewhat unique and the resulting quantification of the benefits demonstrates that additional funding and more diverse applications could be warranted.

Beyond Survival: Transformative Impacts of Integrating Mental Health and Livelihood Support in Conflict Zones

This article presents a case study of an integrated humanitarian intervention that combines mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) with livelihood assistance to enhance the psychosocial well-being, interpersonal relations, and social cohesion of internally displaced persons. Focusing on International Organization for Migration's MHPSS and Livelihood Integration project in Iraq, this paper critically assesses its outcomes and limitations in a protracted conflict and displacement context. Key findings reveal that MHPSS and Livelihood Integration project participants, compared to those in non-integrated programs, reported improved emotional well-being, new life skills and social skills, enhanced problem-solving and stress management abilities, as well as greater adaptability and motivation. Integration of MHPSS and livelihood activities also facilitated social network development and a sense of connectedness. These results show the effectiveness of integrated interventions in supporting the mental health and well-being of internally displaced persons, returnees, and vulnerable community members while promoting a sense of belonging and community cohesion, contributing indirectly to intracommunal peace and positive social transformation. Offering valuable empirical insights, this study contributes to humanitarian, development, and peacebuilding research by demonstrating how structured MHPSS activities can be integrated into livelihood programs to support the mental health and emotional well-being of affected populations in a protracted conflict setting.

Sustainable Livelihoods in Rural Uganda— Programmes, Projects, and Participants in the Face of Pandemics

This study examines institutions’ contributions to sustainable livelihood activities in rural Uganda, focusing on how these activities adapt in times of crisis and what resilience mechanisms might enhance recovery from disasters. Centred on the Kabuyanda sub-county selected for its vulnerability to frequent droughts and floods, this research employs the sustainable livelihoods framework to investigate institutional roles, community engagement, and the resilience capacity of developmental projects. Data was gathered through a household-level survey, targeting 400 representative households from the 26,000 in Kabuyanda, conducted in November 2021 via the online KoboToolbox platform. The household-focused sampling approach provided nuanced insights into governance processes and relationships from the perspective of governance recipients. Descriptive statistics, including frequency tables and graphs, were used to analyse the data. This study highlights how institutional support, beneficiary participation, and resilience-oriented project designs collectively foster durable livelihoods. The findings underscore the necessity of resilience focused strategies in sustainable rural development, providing critical insights for policymakers to align local and global recovery efforts during COVID-19.

ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION FOR SELF-CARE AMONG FEMALE YOUTH FARMERS IN KADUNA SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined the agricultural livelihood diversification strategies for self-care among female youth farmers in Kaduna South Local Government area of Kaduna State. The specific objectives were to: examine the extent of female youth diversification strategies in agricultural livelihood activities in the study area; examine the extent of use of livelihood income on female youths’ self-care, and determine the factors influencing categories of livelihood diversified among the female youths in the study area. A multi-staged sampling procedure was used in selecting 131 respondents and primary data were collected with the aid of structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and Tobit regression model were used for data analysis. The results showed that 44.0% of female youth were engaged in processing and value addition activities while 21.2% of them were engaged in production activities and about (48.0%) of them were engaged in more than one livelihood activities. The findings further revealed that livelihood diversification strategies were influenced by level of education (2.550), agricultural experience (0.001) and number of livelihood activities (0.626) among others. Thus, the study recommends that government and private organization should provide financial support and entrepreneurial training to female youth to boost their capacity to diversify to more and better livelihood activities, thereby keeping them away from youth restiveness

Effects of human disturbance on the distribution and abundance of large mammals in Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Ethiopia

The increasing human pressure has threatened wildlife conservation, even in protected areas. However, findings reporting the effects of human on wildlife conservation are not consistent. This study aimed to investigate the effect of human disturbance on the distribution and abundance of mammals in Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park considering the consumptive and non-consumptive modes of human activities. The study was conducted from September 2017 to February 2018 in three selected sites, which were stratified based on human disturbance as nature conserved areas, sites engaged in consumptive livelihood, and ecotourism sites. Data were collected using a line transect method. The distribution and abundance data were analyzed using Chi-square tests and one-way ANOVA, respectively. There was a significant difference on the distribution of target wild animals in the selected sites; greater kudu (P < 0.001), warthog (P < 0.01), and bohor reedbuck (P = 0.03) were highest in the “nature conserved” site. Human disturbance also significantly affected the abundance of warthog (P = 0.028), greater kudu (P < 0.001), and bohor reedbuck (P = 0.024). Greater kudu distribution was limited in nature conserved site. However, Warthog and Bohor Reedbuck were distributed in all sampling sites; nature conserved sites hold the highest population abundance. The results indicate that consumptive local livelihood and ecotourism disturbances adversely affected the distribution and abundance of mammals relative to the nature reserved site. However, ecotourism favored some mammal species from the consumptive local people’s livelihood activities. Thus, to reduce the impact of human disturbances on wildlife conservation, monitoring and controlling the level of human disturbance is urgent. Sustainable practices such as community engagement, awareness creation and alternative livelihood options should be proposed.

Forced Displacement, Gender, and Livelihoods: Refugees in Ethiopia

This study uses the Ethiopia Skills Profile Survey (2017) to examine the gender differences in livelihood opportunities and activities between refugees and host communities. The results show a significant gender gap in participation in the labour market where refugee and host women are less likely to have employment, and that household characteristics influence women’s economic opportunities. While having a female household head, access to agricultural land, and additional female adults increase both refugee and host female’s participation in economic activities, higher numbers of children in the household significantly reduce refugee women’s opportunities. In addition, higher educational attainment boosts both male and female refugees’ participation in wage employment. Among refugees, both female and male Somali refugees have relatively better access to employment opportunities compared to other refugee groups, especially refugees from South Sudan and Sudan.

Climate-related loss and damage in contexts of agrarian change: differentiated sense of loss from extreme weather events in northeast Cambodia

The uneven burden of climate-related losses and damages and its implications for equity and social justice are receiving growing attention in science and policy. Smallholder farmers, indigenous groups, and ethnic minorities are often identified as particularly vulnerable and likely to experience a greater burden of climate-related loss and damage. However, limited attention has been paid to experiences of climate-related loss and damage in contexts of agrarian change and related struggles, especially around land. In this paper, we analyse experiences of climate-related loss amongst smallholder farmers in Ratanakiri province, northeast Cambodia. We derive an analytical framework from political economy of vulnerability and sociology of loss to explain farmers’ sense of loss from climate change and foreground intangible dimensions of climate-related loss. We use a mixed-methods approach with a hierarchical regression analysis of a household survey (n = 295), individual interviews, and focus group discussions across eleven villages. We find that a higher number of livelihood activities, greater values related to land, types of negative impacts experienced, and stronger perception of changes in extreme weather events are associated with a greater sense of loss. Meanwhile, a higher ability to repay loans and secure land tenure is associated with a lower sense of loss. Our results demonstrate how experiential, relational, and normative dimensions of climate-related loss are co-produced through processes of agrarian change such as financialization and histories of land struggles (i.e. through debt failure and fear of loss of access to land). This study contributes a deeper understanding of people’s lived experiences of loss arising from climate change impacts in agrarian contexts and their implications for climate justice.