Livelihood Activities Research Articles

Climate-related loss and damage in contexts of agrarian change: differentiated sense of loss from extreme weather events in northeast Cambodia

The uneven burden of climate-related losses and damages and its implications for equity and social justice are receiving growing attention in science and policy. Smallholder farmers, indigenous groups, and ethnic minorities are often identified as particularly vulnerable and likely to experience a greater burden of climate-related loss and damage. However, limited attention has been paid to experiences of climate-related loss and damage in contexts of agrarian change and related struggles, especially around land. In this paper, we analyse experiences of climate-related loss amongst smallholder farmers in Ratanakiri province, northeast Cambodia. We derive an analytical framework from political economy of vulnerability and sociology of loss to explain farmers’ sense of loss from climate change and foreground intangible dimensions of climate-related loss. We use a mixed-methods approach with a hierarchical regression analysis of a household survey (n = 295), individual interviews, and focus group discussions across eleven villages. We find that a higher number of livelihood activities, greater values related to land, types of negative impacts experienced, and stronger perception of changes in extreme weather events are associated with a greater sense of loss. Meanwhile, a higher ability to repay loans and secure land tenure is associated with a lower sense of loss. Our results demonstrate how experiential, relational, and normative dimensions of climate-related loss are co-produced through processes of agrarian change such as financialization and histories of land struggles (i.e. through debt failure and fear of loss of access to land). This study contributes a deeper understanding of people’s lived experiences of loss arising from climate change impacts in agrarian contexts and their implications for climate justice.

Experiences of participants in an agricultural livelihood support initiative for people living with HIV in central Uganda

This study aimed at assessing the experiences of people living with HIV who participated in an agricultural livelihood support initiative in selected districts of Uganda. The initiative, implemented from 2017 to 2018, involved the provision of agricultural inputs such as beans, cassava cuttings, goats, chickens, and pigs to participants. In-depth interviews were conducted with 37 people (28 women and 9 men) from the districts of Kampala, Masaka and Wakiso (specifically Entebbe) in central Uganda, who had participated in the project. Data were analysed thematically focusing on facilitators, challenges and outcomes from the project. The following themes emerged as facilitators: access to land and animal feed, prior farming experience and supportive family and friends. Some participants experienced challenges including animal/poultry diseases, livestock theft, “low quality” agricultural inputs, unfavourable weather conditions, limited finance and land to support livelihood activities and difficulties working in groups. Several participants reported positive livelihood outcomes including improved food security, better nutrition, increased income and improved mental health. However, some participants reported negative outcomes which took the form of a loss of money and time invested when their livestock died from disease. Although participants in the agricultural livelihood initiative faced challenges which reduced the profitability of their projects, the initiative was regarded as beneficial and worthwhile. These findings have relevance to the broader field of livelihoods programming. Future interventions can draw from the experiences of our participants while also taking seriously into consideration the different circumstances of individuals in a targeted population so as to increase the chances of producing more positive outcomes.

Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo

Abstract The high prevalence of food insecurity and malnutrition in Kasai Oriental, Democratic Republic of the Congo, prompted an investigation into the complex relationship between household livelihood activities and food security. Despite many rural households relying on subsistence farming, this alone may not ensure improved food security in Kasai Oriental. Consequently, non-farm sectors like artisanal mining offer a potential solution to address food insecurity among rural households. The aim of this study is to explore the association between engagement in artisanal diamond mining, food insecurity, and children’s nutritional status in Kasai Oriental. The research utilizes household cross-sectional data collected between November and December 2022. Fixed effects and Instrumental variable models were employed to address household heterogeneity and potential endogeneity related to participation in artisanal diamond activities. The regression results reveal a significant relationship between participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security. This implies that participation increases households’ cash, enabling them to access sufficient food and potentially mitigating the risk of falling into food insecurity. However, involvement in artisanal mining has not shown a significant association with children’s malnutrition. These findings call for further research on “hidden hunger.” Policies aiming to encourage and formalize artisanal diamond mining should integrate specific extension services and inform rural households about hidden hunger.

Participatory Mapping of Ethnoecological Perspectives on Land Degradation Neutrality in Southern Burkina Faso

In the Sahel region of West Africa, land degradation has raised concerns about the threat of desertification, leading to the establishment of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994. Over time, the focus has shifted from simply combating desertification to a more comprehensive international program focused on preserving the health of our land by offsetting any damage with restoration efforts by 2030 to sustain ecosystem functions and services. This balancing process—which is in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—is known as Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). We examine Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) patterns, namely degradation and rehabilitation processes, by integrating participatory mapping with high-resolution satellite imagery with local stories, observations, historical records, and existing studies. The data elicited an understanding of the processes driving land degradation and adaptation strategies among three distinct ethnic groups of crop and livestock farmers in the village of Yallé in southern Burkina Faso. Some of these people were originally from this region, while others moved from places where the land was already degraded. Participants in the study had diverse experiences and perceptions of land degradation, its drivers, and adaptation strategies, which were influenced by their ethnicity, livelihood activities, and life experiences. These differences highlight the impact of cultural and socioeconomic factors on how people view land degradation, as well as the role of local knowledge in managing the environment. The study emphasizes the necessity of incorporating ethnoecological perspectives into projects focused on Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) to better understand land degradation and improve land management. This integration can significantly contribute to strengthening global sustainability and community resilience.

Influence of livelihood functional diversity on agro-food systems in rural communities from different macro regions of Brazil

Urbanization has changed the livelihood diversity of rural communities worldwide. This study aimed to fit an indicator of the functional diversity of livelihood activities to assess the heterogeneity of socioeconomic conditions and their influence on agro-food changes in rural communities in Brazil. This study was conducted in three macro regions of Brazil, through semi-structured questionnaire interviews conducted in 1012 households to verify details about food patterns, self-consumption farms, and socioeconomic conditions. Data from questionnaires were analyzed using multivariate statistical models to appraise similarities among communities and determine the relative influence of socioeconomic factors on agro-food patterns. Specific socioeconomic status and use of natural resource data were analyzed while adjusting for Petchey and Gaston's indicator of functional diversity to evaluate the heterogeneity of local livelihood activities and socioeconomic conditions. This indicator summarizes the proportional livelihood richness in all sampled places, as better conditions for survival were found in specific localities of the central-west and eastern Amazon regions of Brazil. We also verified that the remote areas of the Goiás and Pará states were regions with the most significant maintenance of traditional food habits and use of natural resources. Although these results do not allow us to establish that all of these areas are undergoing an agro-food transition process, some localities are more likely than others to adjust their livelihood strategies to face global food changes. This interdisciplinary approach facilitated the identification of the most similar groups regarding their livelihoods and socioeconomic conditions that influenced the agro-food transition process in rural regions.

Agro-Pastoral Youth Participation in Livelihood Activities, Development Programs and Interventions in East and West Hararghe Zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to identify the status and determinants of male and female youth participation in selected livelihood activities, development programs and interventions in agro-pastoral areas of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional research design and mixed methods research approach were employed. A multi-stage random sampling strategy was followed to select four agro-pastoral Woredas (A ‘Woreda’ is an administrative unit equivalent to a District), 12 Kebeles (A ‘Kebele’ is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia. A Woreda/District consists of several Kebeles) and 398 youth aged 15–29 years for a face-to-face interview. Data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics and an econometric model (Logistic regression) estimation. We found that whereas male youth had better access to land, participation in extension/advisory services and Farmers’ Training Centers (FTCs), agricultural training, and NGOs, female youth had better participation in non-/off-farm livelihood activities and Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Our findings indicated that lack of access to financial resources, limited access to land, poor extension and rural advisory services, limited skills development programs and mentorship were key factors affecting youth participation. Other factors include: targeting criteria, discrimination (e.g. on the basis of gender, social structure), cumbersome organizational procedures and requirements, limited availability and capacity of supporting organizations, poor infrastructural developments, mismatch between needs and services provided, conflict, and climate-induced shocks and uncertainties. To overcome these challenges, local and regional governments and their development partners operating in the area should implement a multi-stakeholder, participatory, co-design and development of programs, projects and interventions to enhance collaboration, youth engagement and benefit. Investments in capacity-building and alternative income-generating activities, entrepreneurship education and business skills training are also important.

Contribution of Sweetpotato Production to Economic Empowerment of Farming Households in Niger-Delta Area of Nigeria

Many farming households in Nigeria are deprived, and poor, hence, the need for economic empowerment intervention. Sweetpotato production, due to its short cycle and low input requirement could be projected on a larger scale for farming households’ economic empowerment. However, data regarding ability of sweetpotato farming for farming households’ economic empowerment is scarce. Therefore, farming households’ sweetpotato production and economic empowerment in Nigeria’s Niger-Delta Area was investigated. 364 sweetpotato farming households were chosen through a five-stage sample process. Descriptive statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation, T-test, and multiple regression were used to analyze the data that interview schedule was used to collect. Most respondents were female and aged 42.7±11.9 years. Farm size; farming experience; and income from sweetpotato, other crops, and non-crop livelihood activities were 2.6±3.4 hectares; 17.2±12.4 years; and ₦1,327,723.0±1,639,414.0 yearly, ₦2,385,815.0±2,615,273.0 yearly, and ₦1,828,004.0±2,336,270.0 yearly, respectively. The sweetpotato production and economic empowerment were low and high amongst farming households, respectively. Age, farm size and income from sweet potato were significantly related to economic empowerment. The economic empowerment status of high and low sweetpotato producers differed significantly. Between farming households with low and high income from sweetpotato production, their economic empowerment status significantly differed. Farming households’ economic empowerment was mostly predicted by farming experience; and income from sweetpotato, and non-crop livelihood activities. Sweetpotato production influenced farming households' ability to prosper economically. Agricultural policies oriented towards improving economic empowerment should be promoted to emphasize increased sweetpotato production.

Determinants of household livelihood diversification in the uplands: The case of cassava production areas in central highlands of Vietnam

ABSTRACT The livelihoods of upland communities in Vietnam are rapidly transforming due to socio-economic and environmental changes. As a result, livelihood diversification has emerged as an adaptive strategy to these pressures, while agricultural commercialization demands greater production specialization. This study explored livelihood and crop diversification in the central highlands using survey data from 364 households and 22 in-depth interviews. The Simpson Diversity Index and Herfindahl-Hirschman Indexe were used to measure diversification levels, and regression analysis identified key determinants. Findings revealed moderate-low livelihood diversification toward non-farm activities and moderate-high crop diversification, with a trend toward industrial cassava specialization. Household-head age, education, perception of climate risks, and transportation accessibility were key factors influencing livelihood diversification. The study recommends policies to enhance young laborers’ capacity in agriculture and promote the development of non-farm livelihood activities, leveraging local resources for sustainable upland development.

Is Cocoa Production a Main Driver of Children’s Work in Ghana?

Child labour in cocoa production remains a major concern. Yet, an overall assessment of the role of cocoa production in child labour, comparing with other household livelihood activities, as well as a more nuanced view on the work that is done by children, is lacking. Using data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey 2017, we model the probability of children’s work based on cocoa production and a set of other variables at child, parental, household and community level. We specify children’s work in different ways to better interpret employment conditions, compare effects across gender and age of the child, and address potential bias by controlling for measurement error and using an instrumental variable estimation and a coefficient stability approach. We find that cocoa production increases the probability of working on the own farm but not exceeding allowable work time or in harmful conditions. The effects are similar for boys and girls but are much larger for older children. Other farm-household activities, especially food crop production and livestock ownership, are much more strongly associated with children’s work, often under more harmful conditions. This implies that solely targeting the cocoa sector might run the risk to transpose child labour to other activities.

Social protection, food security and sustaining households during COVID-19: Experiences of single mothers residing in Umkhanyakude, South Africa

This study examines the relationship between access to state cash transfers, food security and the sustainability of single-mother households in the rural Umkhanyakude Municipal area in Kwa-Zulu Natal province, South Africa. We explored the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 and cash transfers as a primary contributor to the economic well-being of single mothers from low-income rural communities. We also focus on financial transfers from non-state sources such as non-governmental organisations, kin and non-kin support systems. The sustainable livelihoods framework provides an analytical tool to understand how cash transfers from the state enable single mothers to navigate challenges during the pandemic. Drawing on interviews with 16 women from a rural community in Umkhanyakude, we analyse the distribution of family income to meet household expenses and the survival strategies such as livelihood activities initiated by single mothers to sustain households. The challenges and constraints that limit their livelihood outcomes, such as menial state support and financial constraints to sustain their economic activities are highlighted. Three key themes are discussed in this paper: the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 on food security, cash transfers as a strategy for reducing food insecurity, and access to sustainable livelihood activities to reduce food insecurities. This paper contributes to understanding single mothers' roles as actors and beneficiaries of the South African social protection system. It highlights opportunities for various state and non-state agents to advocate and support self-initiated economic activities in single-mother households.

No evidence of increased forest loss from a mining rush in Madagascar’s eastern rainforests

Artisanal and small-scale mining is an important livelihood activity in many biodiversity hotspots. There is substantial international concern about the negative impact of artisanal and small-scale mining on biodiversity, yet in most places this remains poorly understood. We explore the impacts of a high-profile mining rush: the 2016 sapphire rush at Bemainty, Eastern Madagascar, where tens of thousands of miners descended on a protected forest. Media coverage claimed the rush caused hundreds of hectares of deforestation and threatened lemur populations. Using the synthetic control method to estimate counterfactual outcomes, we find no evidence that mining increased forest loss or degradation. Supported by informal interviews and a lemur survey, we argue that mining at Bemainty had limited impacts on the surrounding forest, relative to other threats. Our results highlight the heterogeneity of environmental impacts from artisanal and small-scale mining and emphasize the need for more robust evaluations to inform context-specific policies.

Livelihood Transformation of The K’Ho Sre Ethnic Minority in Lam Dong Province

The K’Ho Sre people in Lam Dong province were the largest local group of the K’Ho ethnic group. Their traditional livelihood activities were farming, animal husbandry, making traditional handicrafts, and participating in predatory economic activities (hunting, gathering, fishing). Nowadays, the K’Ho Sre ethnic group has been adapting to converting their livelihoods from traditional agricultural production models to agricultural production models by applying science and technology. This economic transformation was manifested in many aspects, notably the strong introduction of new farm production methods completely different from traditional production methods regarding cultivation techniques, seedling structure, and forms of exploitation and product consumption. Besides, there were some relatively new activities such as services, buying and selling, hiring, etc. The research was conducted through the following methods: synthesis, observation, survey, and analysis of field data for 400 K’Ho Sre ethnic families in Lam Dong to point out changes in livelihood activities and propose recommendations to contribute to hunger eradication, poverty reduction, and sustainable development.

Climate change vulnerability assessment in the new urban planning process in Tanzania

Climate change vulnerability assessment is an essential tool for identifying regions that are most susceptible to the impacts of climate change and designing effective adaptation actions that can reduce vulnerability and enhance long-term resilience of these regions. This study explored a framework for climate change vulnerability assessment in the new urban planning process in Jangwani Ward, Tanzania. Specifically, taking flood as an example, this study highlighted the steps and methods for climate change vulnerability assessment in the new urban planning process. In the study area, 95 households were selected and interviewed through purposeful sampling. Additionally, 10 respondents (4 females and 6 males) were interviewed for Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and 3 respondents (1 female and 2 males) were selected for Key Informant Interviews (KII) at the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development. This study indicated that climate change vulnerability assessment framework involves the assessment of climatic hazards, risk elements, and adaptive capacity, and the determination of vulnerability levels. The average hazard risk rating of flood was 2.3. Socioeconomic and livelihood activities and physical infrastructures both had the average risk element rating of 3.0, and ecosystems had the average risk element rating of 2.9. Adaptive capacity ratings of knowledge, technology, economy or finance, and institution were 1.6, 1.9, 1.4, and 2.2, respectively. The vulnerability levels of socioeconomic and livelihood activities and physical infrastructure were very high (4.0). Ecosystems had a high vulnerability level (3.8) to flood. The very high vulnerability level of socioeconomic and livelihood activities was driven by high exposure and sensitivity to risk elements and low adaptive capacity. The study recommends adoption of the new urban planning process including preparation, planning, implementation, and monitoring-evaluation-review phases that integrates climate change vulnerability assessment in all phases.

Determinants of rural households’ food security status in South Africa: lessons from covid-19 social relief grant recipients in NIDS-CRAM wave 5

The world experienced an unprecedented health shock (COVID-19) which caught everyone by surprise, and destabilized many sectors, especially the agri-food sector. This unpleasant situation caused upset in the food production and distribution chain, and continues to threaten the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 2 which underscores zero hunger in society. Many people in South Africa were disproportionately affected with severe consequences on their livelihood activities, food security status, health status, and general welfare conditions; and as a result, social relief intervention was put in place or expanded. This study examined the factors influencing rural households’ food security status among the recipients of social relief grants in rural areas of South Africa. The study used a secondary dataset from Wave 5 of National Income Dynamics Study - Coronavirus Rapid Mobile Survey (NIDS-CRAM). The research applied descriptive statistics to describe the respondents’ socio-economic characteristics, and pattern of income flow. Food Insecurity Access Scale was employed to investigate the respondents’ food security status, while multinomial logistic regression was used to explore the determinants of food security. The results showed that the majority of the respondents were black (99%), female-headed (54.15%), dwelling in flats (74.01%), with secondary education (88.6%), and heavily dependent on government grants (58.61%). Also, most households were food secure (71.69%) during the pandemic. Moreover, households headed by men were more food secure (62.84%) compared to the ones headed by the female counterparts (37.08). Multinomial regression estimates revealed that formal education (p<0.1), employment status (p<0.05), dwelling type (p<0.01), as well as household size (p<0.01) significantly determined rural households’ food security status. The study concluded that social relief grants significantly reduced the food insecurity situation among the rural households in South Africa, and recommended that the government should ensure the continuation of the social relief of distress grant to the vulnerable people who are mostly domiciled in the rural areas, especially women who are disproportionately affected by these health shocks. Key words: Covid-19, social grant, rural households, food security, South Africa

SUCCEED Africa: protocol for a multi-method pilot study of a community-based intervention for people with psychosis in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and Malawi

BackgroundRecent reviews have highlighted the need for participatory research to design and evaluate inclusive, community-based interventions that address the diverse needs of people with lived experience of psychosis, within and beyond the health sector. The SUCCEED Africa consortium aims to co-produce a 6-year programme of research across four countries in West (Sierra Leone, Nigeria) and Southeast Africa (Zimbabwe and Malawi). This protocol describes the pilot study in which SUCCEED’s intervention, research tools and processes will be tested on a small scale in each country in preparation for future evaluation research.MethodsThe SUCCEED intervention comprises peer support, case management and livelihood activities for people with lived experience of psychosis. The pilot uses a before-and-after study design investigating change in subjective quality of life in adults diagnosed with a primary psychotic disorder or another mental disorder with psychotic symptoms who are offered the SUCCEED intervention over a 4-month period. Nested within this study are the following: a baseline assessment of the feasibility, acceptability and face validity of the selected measurement tool and validity of proxy versus self-completion; and a multi-method process evaluation examining key process indicators and implementation, service and client-level outcomes. Methods include the following: baseline cognitive interviews; semi-structed observation and routine monitoring and evaluation of service delivery; endline interviews and focus group discussions; and a comparison of provider competencies at endline. At each of the four pilot sites, participants will include the following: ten people with lived experience of psychosis, recruited from either health services or community settings using purposive sampling to maximise variation; up to ten adult family members (one per participant with lived experience) involved in their care; the peer support worker, community support worker and supervisor responsible for delivering the intervention; and the data collectors. Recruitment will take place in July and August 2023.DiscussionTo the best of our knowledge, this will be the first study of a community-based intervention incorporating lay-delivered case management, formal peer support and livelihoods activities for people with lived experience of psychosis in sub-Saharan Africa. Findings will be relevant not only to SUCCEED but also to others interested in promoting rights-based approaches to community mental health in low-resource settings.Trial registrationUS National Library of Medicine (ClinicalTrials.gov), Protocol reference ID 28346. Initially registered retrospectively July 20/2023: In review.

Conceptualizing climate-induced migration in Africa

Climate change has detrimental effects on the livelihoods of Africans, given their dependency on agriculture and subsistence farming. As such, when the environment is no longer conducive due to climate change challenges, migration is opted to seek better, more supportive living conditions. The study aimed to understand migration trends in the African region and to identify sustainable development strategies to mitigate migration by employing a bibliometric and systematic literature review. This systematic literature review of 16 studies conceptualized climate-induced mobility in African countries with evidence on how climate change has influenced migration decisions for most dwellers in vulnerable African areas. The results revealed a rural-urban migration as farming workers searched for other ways to secure livelihoods. Migration to other countries was also identified, especially in countries like the United States, France and the United Kingdom. However, the results also revealed that those who remained in rural areas would opt for other livelihood activities such as businesses. It was also observed that climate-induced migration is growing in Africa, particularly in Ghana, Uganda, Tanzania and Ethiopia. Therefore, to mitigate climate issues and manage migration, strategies are required to support communities affected by climate-induced problems.This study recommends that governments and policymakers should consider strategies like climate development finance, capacitating communities depending on natural resources, conservation agriculture and innovative technology to help stabilize the economies in areas affected by climate change and to improve human security.

The vulnerability of fisheries-based livelihoods to climate variability and change in coastal small pelagic fishing communities in Tanzania

Fisheries-based livelihood activities constitute an essential means of income and well-being for the majority living in coastal areas. This paper examines vulnerability of fisheries-based livelihoods caused by climate variability and change. It focuses on three small pelagic fishers’ communities including Kipumbwi, Kilindoni, and Kilwa-Kivinje, along the Tanzanian coast, as a case study. Little research has been done on the effect of climate variability and change on the livelihoods of small-scale fishing communities in developing countries, particularly along the Tanzanian coast. In collecting data, questionnaire, focused group discussion and an interactive governance approach were used. Results showed that the natural vulnerability issues include, reduced catches, and strong winds. Economic vulnerability, mentioned lack of credit facilities. For social vulnerability, respondents mentioned an increased number of fishers and fishing vessels On the aspect of technology, respondents mentioned lack of modern fishing methods. As findings suggest, these vulnerability aspects, are possibly associated with anthropogenic factors such as illegal fishing, may not be related to climate change, but climate change may intensify them. The findings further showed that climate variability has negatively affected the fisheries on which fisher communities depend for income and for food security thus affecting their local economy. Climate change has negatively affected small pelagic fishers. The decline in fish catches and economic- un-matching changes in fish prices have negatively affected the fishing community's income, employment, and food security. The recommended means for reducing vulnerability include reducing taxes and levies, availability of facilities for reducing post-harvesting loss and availability of reliable markets.

Contribution of agro-pastoral diversification to the livelihood outcomes of households in South Kerio Basin, Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya

This study assessed the nature and effects of agro-pastoral diversification, in particular diversification into horticulture, on the livelihood outcomes in the South Kerio Basin, Elgeyo Marakwet County (EMC), Kenya, a semi-arid region. The study was a cross-sectional survey design with a mixed methods approach in three locations; Keu, Kibargoi and Arror. The study targeted 8,199 households, from which a sample of 383 households was determined using the Yamane (1967) formula. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) V22 was used to generate quantitative data in terms of frequencies, percentages and multiple regression analyses. The study established that the average household land size was 3.4 acres, whereby 33 per cent of the land and 30 per cent of annual investments were deployed to horticultural production. A greater proportion of households incorporated horticulture into agricultural production between 2017 and 2019. The majority of households experienced minimum to moderate improvements in food, income security and socio-economic wellbeing as a result of diversifying into horticulture. Diversification into horticultural production significantly influenced livelihood outcomes at the probability level of error less than 0.001. The study concluded that horticultural production was an important livelihood activity for enhancing livelihood outcomes in the basin. The study recommends that the national and county governments promote horticultural livelihoods by reviewing policies and interventions that address agro-pastoral livelihoods and incorporate local socio-economic capabilities while involving households in the intervention process.

The role of agroforestry systems for addressing climate change livelihood vulnerability of farmers of Northwestern Ethiopia

Farmers in Ethiopia have been vulnerable to climate change in recent decades. In the face of this change, farmers have managed agroforestry systems to maintain their livelihoods. However, studies exploring the role of agroforestry in reducing household vulnerability are lacking in Northwestern Ethiopia. The objectives of the study were to (i) investigate households’ livelihoods vulnerability to climate change in Northwestern Ethiopia; (iii) assess the role of agroforestry in mitigating the negative impacts of climate change on farmers livelihoods. Key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, household surveys (387), and focus group discussions were used to collect the data. Descriptive statistics, principal component analysis, the X2-test, and the t-test were run to analyze the data. The findings revealed that households are vulnerable to rising temperatures, rainfall variability, frost, disease and pests, erosion, hailstorms, price hikes, wildlife damage to crops, and health stress. Agroforestry non-practitioners had a higher livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) (0.42 ± 0.081) than practitioners (0.46 ± 0.079). The Livelihood Vulnerability-Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change Index (LVI-IPCC) showed that AF non-practitioners had a higher exposure (0.58), sensitivity (0.54) index, and a lower adaptive capacity index (0.44) than the exposure (0.34), sensitivity (0.38), and adaptive capacity index (0.51) of practitioners. Plant diversity, income level and diversity, livelihood activities, social network, and food security status of farmers were improved by agroforestry. Farmers were therefore less susceptible to adverse climate shocks. Thus, the AF system could be part of future adaptation and resilience programs that provide dependable tools to minimize households’ vulnerability to climate shocks. However, management guidelines, such as understanding local ecosystems, setting clear objectives, choosing suitable species, planning for diversity, considering the market, and regular maintenance and monitoring, are needed for agroforestry to improve its contribution.

Applying the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to Examine the Efficacy of Community-Based Tourism at Equitably Promoting Local Livelihood Opportunities

ABSTRACT Community-based tourism (CBT) projects often fail to enhance rural livelihoods because of poor fit with the local livelihood context and inequitable participation opportunities. Through a mixed-methods study on a CBT initiative in Carmelita, Guatemala, this research applied the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) to understand how tourism contributes to local livelihoods and residents’ perceived barriers for participation. The authors applied ethnographic research methods (observation and semi-structured interviews with 43 Carmelita residents and 10 key informants) and analyzed wages and job distribution from tourism employment records. CBT supported a high, albeit gendered, distribution of tourism jobs across the community. Tourism was a fundamental, but not stand-alone, livelihood activity. Residents perceived few barriers to participate in tourism, but increasing formalization changed how they worked with tourists. Understanding tourism development within the local livelihood context and how CBT initiatives distribute tourism job opportunities is critical to meaningfully generate equitable income-earning opportunities within communities.