Livelihood Patterns Research Articles

Livelihood, Poverty and Multiple Deprivation among Tribals in Odisha

The present study seeks to examine the livelihood pattern, incidence of poverty and multiple deprivation among the tribal communities or Scheduled Tribes (STs) of Odisha by using secondary data collected from the various rounds of the National Sample Survey (NSS), Census of India reports, District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLFS) reports, etc. It evaluates the contributions of the different sources of livelihood on level of living, quality of life and economic well-being of the tribals. Methodologically, the study employs the Foster, Greer and Thorbecke (FGT) class of poverty measures to examine the incidence and magnitude of poverty among the tribals. It finds a strong relationship between livelihood pattern and poverty among them. Though there has been a decline in the incidence of poverty (head count ratio) among the tribals over a period of time, the rate of decline has been slower among the tribal communities than the other social classes. The tribals are confronted with low levels of income and higher levels of poverty due to their subsistence level of livelihood. Most of them are engaged in low-paid works, and suffer from chronic poverty and multiple deprivation. Finally, the study concludes with suggestions on how potential policy options can improve the livelihood condition of the tribals and redress the problem of heavy incidence of poverty among them.

Changes in Livelihood and Utilization Pattern of Farm Pond Owners in Drought Regions of Maharashtra, India

The study aimed to assess the impact of farm pond adoption on the livelihood of beneficiaries in drought-prone regions of Maharashtra, India during 2022-23. Data from 160 beneficiaries and 160 non-beneficiaries were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and published sources and data were analysed, The results shows that a significant increase in various aspects of beneficiary activities, including the utilization of women's productive time (MS 0.43 to 2.47), the regular employment generation index (MS 81.54 to 151.04), the livestock composition index (MS 1.46 to 2.39), the enterprises cost-effectiveness index (MS 17.27 to 48.83), the cultivated land utilization index (MS 0.22 to 0.67), and the irrigability index (MS 2.17 to 16.88). In terms of investment, horticultural crops received the highest allocation (MS 401) followed by animal husbandry (MS 360) and agricultural crops (MS 236). Farm pond income was predominantly directed toward purchasing farm inputs (56.88 %), with a smaller portion allocated to equipment (18.13%) and the least to non-agricultural businesses (1.25 %). Overall, the findings showed a significant improvement in the livelihood component of farm pond owners (MS 84.09), with the employment component exhibiting the highest mean score of 81.33, followed by the economic component (MS 75.97). These findings underscore the transformative potential of farm pond adoption in drought-prone regions, as it enhances livelihoods, empowers gender roles, and promotes diversified and sustainable agricultural practices within the locale of the study.

COLONIAL MIZORAM: FOREST PRODUCE AND FARMING METHODS

Frequent raids of areas that the Lushais claimed as their hunting grounds occupied by the British culminated to the creation of the Lushai Hills district under the British rule. Maintenance of public order being the prime concerned, policies relating to forests and fields were sparse allowing traditional patterns of livelihoods to continue almost unchanged. The demand for forest produce was only outside the District as there was no local industries or enterprises that needed raw materials. Trade in forest produce and traders, however, were introduced in this period. Trade permits were issued, Mahal awarded for extraction along the river banks, and minor forest produce were covered by permit and Royalty was collected. Difficult terrain, poor transportation system and shortage of labour were impediments to timber trade. Lack of supervision and management practices rendered the timber traders a free hand, leading to unsystematic felling of trees and damage to productive potential of forest resources. Mizos continued to depend on jhums and local forest resources for livelihood during the whole period of colonial rule. Training of inhabitants to hunt for financial prizes by officials led to the extinction of a number of species. The calls for conservation and forestation was not effective as it was perceived that the hills and jhums land replenished quickly causing no discernible negative impact.

Forest Fire Hazards and Livelihood Vulnerability Assessment of Ghumsur Forests in Ganjam District of Odisha

Background: The livelihood patterns of indigenous tribal communities residing in the Ghumsur forests are intricately interwoven with their dependence on forest-related activities. However, the degradation of forest ecosystems, particularly the incidence of forest fires, exerts a profound impact on the socio-economic dynamics and resilience of these communities. Consequently, an exigent need arises to comprehensively elucidate, evaluate and comprehend the nuanced characteristics of these areas concerning the complex interplay between forest fires and livelihoods. Methods: A thorough investigation was conducted to evaluate livelihood vulnerability to forest fires in the Ghumsur North Division forests. This assessment utilized the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI), incorporating 34 indicators condensed into six factors for a comprehensive composite index. The factors represented various aspects of vulnerability and were based on tangible indicators reflecting the complexity of livelihood vulnerability. Data sources were primarily used, with indicators standardized on a scale from 0 to 1, where values near 1 indicated higher vulnerability. Result: The Gallery sub-region is particularly vulnerable due to factors like poor infrastructure, increased reliance on forests, close proximity to forested areas, socio-economic fragility and exposure to extreme weather events. It’s crucial to improve adaptive capacity in fire-affected regions to reduce vulnerability to forest fires. Tailored policy interventions should focus on sector-specific development programs and involve communities in adaptation planning to address the link between livelihoods and susceptibility to forest fires.

Flood preparedness in rural flood-prone area: a holistic assessment approach in Bangladesh

Despite the many fatalities and injuries, Bangladesh lacks holistic individual flood preparedness studies. This study evaluates flood preparedness in the flood-prone rural region of Dowarabazar Upazila, Sunamganj District, Bangladesh. The field survey had 596 respondents. As required, we implemented Spearman’s rank correlation and multiple linear regression. Flooding affected the study population, which made people feel extremely unsafe. Most respondents warned that floods might affect their homes. Many participants reported receiving flood-related information from locals. Most participants reported not being notified of flood forecasts and warnings in their area. The majority indicated that they sought refuge in flood shelters. A significant portion of the participants in the study were unaware of flood preparedness. Loss minimization and adaptability are deficiencies. Concerning flood preparedness, gender, age, occupation, monthly income, multiple sources of income, and house type are all significant determinants. According to field research, females are less prepared for flooding than males. Individuals with pucca housing are better equipped than those with unsafe housing (kacha). Authorities should thus take these factors into account while enhancing flood preparedness. In addition to implementing measures such as improving livelihood patterns and conducting educational campaigns, it is imperative to construct holistic flood preparedness.

Transitioning Livelihood Strategies Among the Garo Community: A Case Study in Netrakona, Bangladesh

Garo community is one of the greatest neglected instinctive communities of Bangladesh. The Garo people are neglected from their basic needs and it is significant to detect the situation and attitude to draw the real picture of them. This research work predominantly favors on the Garos livelihood pattern from past to present and to ascertain the alter of their livelihood. This study has conducted on the endemic community named Garo living within Durgapur and Kolmakanda upazila area of Netrakona district in Bangladesh. In doing so both historical and explorative data was applied; historical data was mostly procured from secondary sources such as revealed books, journals, articles, reports, census and souvenir. Qualitative research method was adopted for this study and 30 Garo people were chosen by using purposive sampling method for the study. The study uncovers that Garo’s traditional life practices are under the intimidation of the cancellation and over the motion of time they are acquiring completely a new life. In this research, the researchers have found several interior and exterior factors which are mainly accountable for Garo’s livelihood change. Ultimately, while the Garo community is switching then they are rejecting many of their characterized criterion and accommodating to some other livelihood criterion which are directly influenced by Christianity, NGOs, globalization and social development. As a result, many of Garos traditional cultures including language, food habits, dress pattern and even religion are under challenges. They need better communication and transportation system, more educational facilities, more government and non-government assistance including material and financial.

Farmers’ livelihood strategies for adapting to reduced water resources in the upstream Mekong Delta, Vietnam

The article analyzes the livelihood strategies of farmers to adapt to reduced amounts of water in the upstream Mekong Delta in Vietnam. The study was conducted in An Phu district, the upstream district of An Giang province, bordering Cambodia, the area first affected when the availability of water resource from the Mekong River changes. The study aims to learn about the impact of changes on livelihood patterns and agricultural livelihood strategies using qualitative and quantitative data collection methods including: household surveys, key informant interviews, participatory rural appraisal methods, and in-depth interviews with farmers. The results show that the decrease in water resources has led to transitions in the livelihoods of farmers. From 2011 to 2022, flood levels had changed, peak floods were lower, and duration of the seasonal floods was shorter. Farmers have gradually changed farming patterns and techniques and adopted different strategies, including from (1) rice to “safe rice” (44.73%); (2) rice to fruits (32.99%); (3) rice to vegetables (6.41%); (4) and vegetables to fruits (13.42%). The reason for these transitions are: reduced water resources availability for practical farming; higher profits are possible with alternative strategies; and, availability of new learning from neighbouring farmers. Better use of available water resources, protection of human health and the environment, and lower production costs are the pathways that farmers have been aiming to achieve effectively and safely on account of changes in their environmental conditions.

A Study of Impact of Climate Change on Livelihood of Farmers in Kumaon Himalaya

Climate change in the Kumaon Himalaya can significantly affect farmers in various ways. Shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns may impact crop yields, disrupt traditional farming practices, and lead to increased vulnerability. Changes in water availability and the melting of glaciers can affect irrigation, essential for agriculture in the region. Additionally, the altered climate may influence the prevalence of pests and diseases, posing further challenges to crop production. Overall, adapting to these changes is crucial for sustaining agricultural livelihoods in the Kumaun Himalaya. The present study is based on both primary and secondary data survey to highlight the impact on farmers livelihood pattern in the study area.

Analysis of the Evolvement of Livelihood Patterns of Farm Households Relocated for Poverty Alleviation Programs in Ethnic Minority Areas of China

Exploring the evolution of livelihood patterns of farm households relocated for poverty alleviation in three prefectures of Guizhou Province, China, can provide a theoretical basis and practical value for achieving sustainable livelihoods of relocated farm households in ethnic minority areas. This study took three ethnic minority autonomous prefectures in Guizhou as the research area. The types and evolution pathways of farm households’ livelihood patterns were divided using 355 tracking and monitoring data from the four phases of relocated farm households’ livelihoods. The evolution characteristics of farm households’ livelihood patterns and changes in their evolution pathways from “before relocation” to 2021 were analyzed. An indicator system of influencing factors was established based on the sustainable livelihood framework. The influencing factors of the evolution path selection and transformation of livelihood patterns were identified using the binary and multiple logistic regression models. The main results are as follows: (1) Implementing the poverty alleviation relocation project shifted the livelihood activities of farm households from agricultural production to non-agricultural industries. The transformation trend of livelihood patterns shifted from agro-dominated, agricultural, agricultural-diversified and balanced types to highly diversified, deeply diversified and subsidy-dependent types. (2) The transformation mode of the evolution pathways of farm households’ livelihood patterns mainly included the stable transformation modes of “active→retention→active” and “active→retention→retention” and the fluctuating transformation modes of “active→retention→fallback”, “active→fallback→active” and “retention→fallback→active”. (3) Natural capital promoted farm households to choose fallback pathways, while material and human capital showed an inhibitory impact. In contrary to human capital, social capital promoted farm households to choose retention pathways. Financial and human capital promoted farm households to choose active pathways. (4) Per capita income, the household head age and relocation years positively affected the evolution pathways of the livelihood pattern from the fallback type to the retention type. The number of means of transport, per capita education level, transportation and communication cost, and the presence of civil servants in the household positively affected the evolution pathways of the livelihood pattern from the fallback type to the active type. Policy suggestions are as follows: Expanding local and nearby employment channels, strengthening vocational skills training for farm households, expanding financial access for farm households, improving policy support for ethnic characteristic industries, implementing bottom-line guarantee policies and exploring ethnic interactive activities for resettlement farm households.

Imagined Communities and Social Stratification in Cristians Livelihood Patterns from the Case Study of the Lisu ethnic group in Conggang Village

Imagined Communities and Social Stratification in Cristians Livelihood Patterns from the Case Study of the Lisu ethnic group in Conggang Village

COVID-19, livelihoods and gender: Material, relational and subjective realities in rural Zambia

This study explores material, relational and subjective elements of wellbeing as micro-level gendered impacts of COVID-19 policy responses on agro-based livelihoods. Using a test case of rural Zambia, we apply a mixed methods research design and draw data from household surveys, household case study interviews, group discussions, and multi-level interviews. Results show gendered impacts at four significant levels of granularity: markets and material wellbeing, household provisioning, labour and care burdens, relationships and social networks, and disruptions to membership organisations and social initiatives. Production and processes leading to market disruptions lead to a gendered reconcentration of economic activities around men who flex financial muscle and flout COVID-19 guidelines respectively. Women on the other hand are squeezed out of production and market circuits, quickly loosing livelihood strategies and getting relegated to unpaid and invisible household work. Whereas women endeavour to find ways to support their families, such as attempting to maintain group savings initiatives, low levels of policy satisfaction, including declining production and market dynamics limit actions towards inclusive and equitable forms of COVID-19 recovery in rural geographies. We call for holistic interventions that consider community patterns of livelihoods and how they are impacted by the pandemic, necessitating a focus on gender sensitive initiatives that are locally driven, build resilience and empower women.

Effects of rising seas and geomorphological changes in the islands of northern Bay of Bengal

The geomorphology of the coastal islands of the northern Bay of Bengal is complex and dynamic in nature. During contemporary times, the geomorphology of coastal islands has been severely influenced by rising sea levels, imposing environmental stress on natural systems. Coastal island progradation and landscape loss scenarios exhibit complex behavior and are influenced by natural processes of fluvial and marine systems. Landscape geomorphic features continuously transform one into another by the natural causal mechanisms and response along with ethnographic interventions at the major islands of the Meghna estuary, which largely impacted ecosystem services, food security, and livelihood patterns of the coastal community. This paper provides historical geomorphological change statistics, the stage of development or evolution of coastal islands, dynamics progradation scenarios, landscape net loss or gain, rate of hereinafter sea-level rise, coastal island stability, impacts of sea level rise on the coastal island geomorphology, and landscape ecology. The geomorphological change of coastal islands have been assessed from ancient cartographic maps (i.e. Rennell's Map in 1776, Tassin's Map in 1840, and Topographic Survey Map in 1943) and remotely sensed satellite imagery of Landsat mission (1972–2021) by using advance RS and GIS tools via overlay analysis techniques. Using time series tidal gauge water level data (1993–2022), the present study analyzes historical trends in sea level rise and assesses its impacts on coastal ecosystems. The study finding demonstrated that coastal islands geomorphology of the northern Bay of Bengal continuously change by fluvial and marine process. Among the coastal island in the study area, the largest island Bhola was displayed noticeable erosion 192.96 km2 with an annual rate of erosion 2.47 km2/yr during the time span between 1943 and 2021. In the northern Bay of Bengal, the results from tidal gauge water level analysis revealed that the yearly maximum sea level rise rate was 9.7 mm/yr, with a strong positive correlation (R2 = 0.30), at a 95% confidence level. The study outcome helps in coastal risk assessment, mitigation strategies, development planning, and coastal resources management.

Livelihood as a Part of Ecosystem

The earning practices of rural residents have been transitioning from agricultural-based to a remittance-based economy. Data report that more than seventy five percent of population households in the study area are currently engaged in foreign employment. This phenomenon has had variety of impacts on both community and its ecological environment. However, academic discourse rarely delves into the changing dynamics of livelihood patterns and their interplay with the surrounding environment. This paper aims to examine the livelihood practices of people as a part of ecology. For the analysis of the objectives set here, mixed method has been deployed to collect and analyze the required data. Semi-structured interview is followed by observation as techniques to collect the information. The study reveals that the changing practice of the livelihood of the people has played a vital role to transform the operation modality of households in both the socio-economic and the physical, environmental dimensions. Moreover, from the analysis of collected data, it was found that the quantity of flora and fauna has increased significantly. The areas once utilized for grazing livestock and cultivation have been found to be rapidly transformed into overgrown and abandoned fields, as the lack of manpower has made it difficult to tend to the land used by the people. Thus, the study concludes livelihood as an integral part of ecology, continuously interacting with its surroundings and changes in its nature have also led to corresponding alterations in the size of components in ecosystem.

Strategi Keberlanjutan Pola Nafkah Rumah Tangga Petani Padi Pulu Mandoti di Desa Salukan, Kabupaten Enrekang

Pulu mandoti is a local type of rice that is fragrant and rare. This glutinous rice has a high selling price and can only thrive when planted in Salukanan Village. However, its productivity is still relatively low, so efforts are needed to sustain the farming business. This study aims to analyze farmer households' livelihood patterns and sustainability strategies. The respondents were 50 farmers selected using simple random sampling. The data were analyzed in descriptive, qualitative, and quantitative ways. The results showed that the pattern strategy of pulu mandoti rice farmer households is an intensification and extensification strategy in agricultural landuse, and diversification strategies in the livestock, service, trade, and employment sectors. The sustainability of farming livelihood patterns resulted in an index of 89.66%, included in the sustainable category. The government needs to pay attention to production factors that affect the productivity of pulu mandoti rice farming so that farming can be sustainable.
 
 Keywords: diversification strategy, extensification and intensification, livelihood pattern, pulu mandoti, rice production

Farmers’ Perceptions of Climate Change and Its Socio-Ecological Consequences in Bhutan’s Biological Corridor Network

Sandwiched between two highly populated countries in the world, Bhutan is not an exception to the impacts of climate change. In the dearth of comprehensive climate data and limited research endeavors, Bhutan’s 69% of the total population, depending on agriculture and livestock farming, is apparently vulnerable to climate change adversities. Notably, those dwelling within the precincts of the Biological Corridors (BCs), recognized as custodians and conservation partners, have been relatively neglected in aspects of climate change impact studies. In the year 2019, our pioneering study in the northern biological corridors of Bhutan aimed to (i) comprehend people’s sensitivity to climate change; (ii) discern people’s perceptions on the severity of climate change impacts on livelihood, natural resources, and wildlife patterns; and (iii) help formulate appropriate strategies and policy transformation in climate adaptation interventions. We conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey, applying random sampling (n = 136) of 435 households from western, central, and eastern Bhutan. Study revealed that farmers’ sensitivity and perception of the impact of climate change vary spatiotemporally, demographically, and occupationally. Not more than 76.7% of respondents noticed the changing climate patterns over the last ten years, while landless households (3%) noticed no discernible impacts. A rise in temperature is the most sensitive variable reported, followed by erratic precipitation, a change in plant phenology, and a shift in wildlife occupancy patterns. A total of 48% of respondents reported drought, scanty rain, floods, and diseases that moderately affected agriculture crops and livestock, while 42% of respondents perceive that climate change is a driving factor for human–wildlife conflict because of increasing wild animal movement towards their region. About 51% of respondents indicated adopting new adaptation strategies, which involved transitioning to different cattle breeds and altering agricultural cropping patterns and crop varieties. We recommend political support for inducing climate-smart agriculture and livestock practices. Urgent research is recommended for the shift of habitats and wildlife due to climate change to better understand and help formulate pragmatic climate adaptation measures in the face of rising human–wildlife conflict.

Does off-farm work alleviate rural households’ energy poverty in China? Comparative analysis based on livelihood patterns

Energy poverty is a global problem, particularly complex and severe in rural areas of developing countries. To address this issue, a theoretical framework is constructed based on the energy ladder theory and family altruism theory, to discuss the role of off-farm work in alleviating energy poverty for rural households. Using data from the Chinese Family Panel Studies, this study identifies the off-farm work patterns and multiple energy poverty index (MEPI) of different rural households, then analyzes the off-farm work and the distance of off-farm work on the MEPI of rural households by employing Oprobit model and conditional mixed process method and verifies the mediating effect of household income. The results show that local off-farm work significantly alleviates the MEPI among rural households. This effect is particularly pronounced among entrepreneurial households and those residing in communities with a higher level of commercial development. On the other hand, the MEPI alleviation effect of distant off-farm work is relatively modest, and this mitigation effect disappears among households with left-behind students and those living in communities with lower levels of commercial development. Furthermore, both forms contribute to the alleviation of MEPI by enhancing household income.

Adaptation in the Scientific Method: An Outline for Mutual Learning and Knowledge Co-production in Climate Science

Climate change is taken as a new site of scientific inquiry across the disciplines against the backdrop of the global discourses of the crisis human society confronts today. Our inability to predict and forecast the future and the problems of climate change led to a theoretical vacuum and thereby burden on the scientific communities. Climate change-induced uncertainties manifested in the manifold and their implications on human society, livelihood and ecosystem have increasingly become the objects of analysis for devising empirical tools for field enquiry. It challenges the specificities while looking at the events of uncertainties in context. The new set of evidence on climate change has also redefined the role of the scientific community. This paper discusses climate-related events in the lives of people and the changes in the ecosystem and explores how such factors became an object of scientific inquiry. With the ideas of political ecology, the domain of scientific practices is transformed into an arena of co-production of knowledge in which place, social context and agencies become central. This study explores (1) how the scientific community adapted to outline an interdisciplinary research programme to systematically investigate and register climate-change-affected areas and (2) how the local people in Ladakh Himalaya have participated and reflected on the changing pattern of livelihood and ecosystem through this research enquiry. It has further complicated the analysis on nature-culture dialectics to adapt a robust scientific method to signify the importance of mutual learning and knowledge co-production in climate science.

DAMPAK SISTEM PENGELOLAAN AIR MINUM TERHADAP SOSIAL BUDAYA MASYARAKAT DI PULAU NUSA PENIDA


 Nusa Penida is a dry island with low rainfall throughout the year reaching 1428.40 mm. Water is an important means to support community life and tourism in Nusa Penida. As the population grows, the need for water also increases, so water needs to be managed with a drinking water management system. The research uses a qualitative descriptive approach using social theory, namely Cultural Materialism Theory to formulate the phenomenology of the socio-cultural impact of the management of the drinking water system on the island of Nusa Penida. The results showed that the existence of adequate resources on Nusa Penida Island sourced from underground water in Kutampi Kaler Village and Penida, Guyangan and Seganing springs managed by PDAM Klungkung Regency. Water is a very expensive resource and affects the economic, social and cultural conditions of the people of Nusa Penida. In the past, before the 2000s, most of the people at the top spent part of their income to buy water which caused the social condition of the community to experience poverty, because during the dry season people would spend their time walking to the coastal area to collect water. Cultural reduction in the form of religion also occurs by building communal communities as the bearers of temples that have freshwater wells on the coast. Starting in 2014, the drinking water management system on Nusa Penida Island has made a shift in the social life of the people of Nusa Penida, namely increasing community welfare due to economic substitution and changes in social patterns due to easy access to drinking water and the emergence of new business activities from the existence of drinking water as evidenced by changes in community culture. Nusa Penida is a shift from an agrarian culture to an industrial culture (tourism). Changes in community cultural patterns due to the availability of drinking water, namely the shift in the pattern of community livelihoods from an agrarian basis to an industrial pattern (tourism).

COVID-19 in Sub-Saharan Africa: Impacts on land, governance, and livelihoods

This paper focuses on the impacts of COVID-19 on livelihoods, land access and governance in rural and peri-urban selected areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Crises are usually expected to be worse for citizens in developing countries since most of their economic activities are in the informal sector, and access to the social protection programs is often limited and exclusionary. Those vulnerable and marginalized are often those who are hit the hardest and who struggle the most to recover after crises. The COVID-19 pandemic is no exception. Extended lockdowns have put livelihoods under stress, underlying patterns of fragile livelihoods and inequality. There are also particular vulnerabilities with regards to land access and livelihoods of vulnerable populations. Our case studies document how the pandemic has affected livelihoods through several mechanisms relating to land access, including distress sales due to economic hardships and exacerbating land conflicts due to increased pressure on land and increasing trends of urban-to-rural migration. We reflect on how households act and react when faced with shocks and how this affects not only their current access to livelihood assets but might undermine their options for the future. In addition, a range of other effects were identified in our case studies that we expect to negatively impact livelihood recovery.

Characterization of shifting cultivation, trends, and diversification of livelihood patterns: A case study from forest villages in Barak valley, Assam, Northeast India

Shifting cultivation is a traditional agricultural system and predominant land use in the mountainous regions of many parts of the world. Recently, there has been a change in traditional shifting cultivation practice. The purpose of the current study is to map the spatial distribution of shifting cultivation plots in forest villages of Barak Valley, Assam, Northeast India, document the socio-economic profile of cultivators, and examine how traditional shifting cultivation is transitioning towards other agricultural systems, leading to livelihood diversification. The study included both primary and secondary data. The shifting cultivation plots were digitized using Sentinel 2 image of 2022. A total of 146 respondents from nine forest villages were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The plots were concentrated in the southern part of Barak Valley and sparsely distributed in the Northern part. The average plot size was 1.35±0.02 ha. A positive correlation was observed between family size and size of jhum plot. The villages were located in remote areas with little access to basic amenities such as metalled roads and schools. The duration of fallow was lesser in villages located nearer to the market, as it was easier for them to sell their produce. Diversification of livelihoods among the younger members was observed, who were engaged in activities other than cultivation. The reason cited by respondents for this was earning additional income. Shifting cultivation combined with commercial farming on fallow land was the most common form of livelihood. The fallow period ranged between 2 to10 years. Weed infestation and loss of fertility were cited as major reasons by all respondents for leaving jhum plots fallow. Species such as Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Orange), Musa sp (Banana), Piper betle L. (Betel Leaf), Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr. (Tree bean), Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda (Asian Broom Grass) and other economically important species were cultivated in the fallow lands. This has increased the pressure on remaining forest lands that are being converted into shifting cultivation areas. Although conversion of fallow for monoculture and agroforestry may not be the solution to every problem, it holds promise for both ecological and economical sustainability, if managed judiciously. However, transition to other livelihood systems must occur with minimal degradation of ecosystem services.