Pastoral Livelihoods Research Articles

Impact of Climate Change on Sustainable Pastoral Livelihoods in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya

Climate change and variability have adversely affected communities’ pastoral livelihoods in Kenya. The study aimed to investigate sustaining pastoral livelihoods in a changing climate in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya. A total of 59 pastoralists were interviewed using a questionnaire. The data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 22. SPSS employed descriptive statistical techniques like frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulations and proportions, means, and standard deviation. Pie charts, graphs, figures, and tables were used to present the data analysis output. Climate has been observed to vary continuously by pastoralists. Climate hazards mostly reported were livestock diseases and the frequency of droughts. The findings also indicated that livestock keepers preferred to graze their livestock on mountains/hills. Pasture and water availability and security determine the pattern of livestock movement. Pastoralists adopted various strategies to cope with climatic changes. Some of these strategies included diverse utilisation of livestock products, controlled grazing, herd diversification, and labour distribution among household members. In conclusion, climatic change and variability effects on the livelihoods of the pastoralists are evident. However, they have diversified ways of adapting and coping with these catastrophes to sustain themselves. To avert the effects of climate change, Turkana agriculture extension officers should focus on value addition to livestock products, provision of livestock insurance schemes, veterinary services, and livestock disease surveillance. Furthermore, agriculture extension needs to develop and enforce livestock policies and develop appropriate contingency plans. Among the policies recommended are- the management of grazing areas, regulations on migratory routes, and rules governing the use of water sources.

Pastoralists’ and agro-pastoralists’ livelihood resilience to climate change-induced risks in the Borana zone, south Ethiopia: Using resilience index measurement approach

This study was conducted in the Borana zone, Oromia region, southern Ethiopia, with the aim of analysing the livelihood resilience of pastoralists’ and agro-pastoralists’ to climate change-related risks. A household survey was used to collect quantitative data, whereas qualitative data were collected via focus group discussions, expert group discussions, and personal observations. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse quantitative data, and content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The results show that frequent droughts, rising temperatures, and reduced rainfall are the major climate change-induced risks affecting the livelihoods of pastorals and agro-pastorals in the study area. Among the parameters tested, the greatest impacts of climate change-induced risks on pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood systems were recorded for food [100%] and animal feed or pasture [99%], followed by livestock loss [95%], a decline in species dynamics [95%], and agro-pastoral land degradation [95%]. The average climate resilience index score of the Borena zone is found to be 0.328, implying that 32.8% of the respondents are resilient, with 0.163 [16.3%] pastoralists and 0.417 [41.7%] agro-pastoralists being resilient. However, all the results are below the scale of the minimum threshold [0.5 or 50%], implying that livelihoods and their households are poorly resilient. For the low resilience in Borena, limited access to basic services [0.26] and the adaptive capacity [0.29] of the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists contributed the highest share for resilience capacity compared to other major building blocks of resilience. However, of the two livelihood systems, pastoralists were found to have less resilience [0.249] compared to agro-pastoralists [0.407]. Besides the climatic factors, the resilience of pastoralists’ and agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods was affected positively and significantly by adaptive capacity and negatively and with statistical significance by the asset endowments of the households at P < 0.05. Therefore, policymakers should give pertinent attention to the reduction of the effects of climatic risks and increase the resilience of pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood systems. Furthermore, actions that focus on increasing access to water, improving the rangeland generative capacity, diversifying the income sources, and providing timely and accurate early warning information are indispensable to building resilient livelihoods among the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities.

Effects of cash transfers on household resilience to climate shocks in the arid and semi arid counties of northern Kenya

ABSTRACT Climatic events and other natural-related disasters experienced in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Kenya negatively affect the pastoral livelihoods of the communities. Addressing vulnerability to climate shocks among pastoral communities of Kenya’s Arid and Semi-lands presents a persistent challenge. Cash transfer programmes have increasingly grown as one mode of building household resilience. Understanding the role of cash transfer interventions on household resilience to climate shocks is key to policy programming. This paper aimed at determining the effects of cash transfers on household resilience to climate shocks. The paper evaluated the Hunger Safety Net Program, which is one of the largest unconditional cash transfer programs in Kenya. The Hunger Safety Net Program targeted poor people in northern Kenya including the counties of Turkana, Wajir, Marsabit, and Mandera. To establish the impact the paper compares households which received cash transfers with those that did not receive transfers. The panel fixed effects model was used to determine the effects of cash transfers on household resilience. The results indicate that cash transfers have positive significant effects on household resilience to climate shocks.

Impact of livelihood strategies and capitals on rangeland sustainability and nomads' poverty: A counterfactual analysis in Southwest Iran

Traditional ranching farming provides society with meat, agricultural products, leather, and hides in an economic procedure through livestock grazing on rangelands. Based on recent research, traditional ranching farming has a crucial role and a significant contribution to the employment of nomadic households. According to recent rangeland degradation, it is important to pay attention to the nomadic livelihoods based on the rangeland environment and the household economy. Global implications for the study of pastoral livelihoods are based on maintaining rangelands and improving household welfare (in terms of earnings). For this purpose, a sustainable livelihood framework based on livelihood strategies and natural and unnatural capitals was applied. The sample size of 393 households from 24 nomadic residences was selected based on the multi-stage cluster sampling method. Data were collected in the form of face-to-face interviews with sample nomads in 2018. The results of switching regression models for analyzing the counterfactual effect indicated that nomadic households who adopted servicing, agriculture, and diversification strategies caused the improvement of rangeland sustainability at 3%, 7%, and 4% and the reduction of household poverty at 4%, 7%, and 5%, respectively. In this regard, increasing human capital and financial capital have significant effects on rejecting ranching strategies and selecting agriculture and diversification strategies.

Trichostrongylosis: a zoonotic disease of small ruminants.

In the present world a significant threat to human health is posed by zoonotic diseases. Helminth parasites of ruminants are one of the most common zoonotic organisms on the planet. Among them, trichostrongylid nematodes of ruminants, found worldwide, parasitize humans in different parts of the world with varying rates of incidence, particularly among rural and tribal communities with poor hygiene, pastoral livelihood and poor access to health services. In the Trichostrongyloidea superfamily, Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Marshallagia marshalli, Nematodirus abnormalis and Trichostrongylus spp. are zoonotic in nature. Species of the genus Trichostrongylus are the most prevalent gastrointestinal nematode parasites of ruminants that transmit to humans. This parasite is prevalent in pastoral communities around the world and causes gastrointestinal complications with hypereosinophilia which is typically treated with anthelmintic therapy. The scientific literature from 1938 to 2022 revealed the occasional incidence of trichostrongylosis throughout the world with abdominal complications and hypereosinophilia as the predominant manifestation in humans. The primary means of transmission of Trichostrongylus to humans was found to be close contact with small ruminants and food contaminated by their faeces. Studies revealed that conventional stool examination methods such as formalin-ethyl acetate concentration or Willi's technique combined with polymerase chain reaction-based approaches are important for the accurate diagnosis of human trichostrongylosis. This review further found that interleukin 33, immunoglobulin E, immunoglobulin G1, immunoglobulin G2, immunoglobulin M, histamine, leukotriene C4, 6-keto prostaglandin F1α, and thromboxane B2 are vital in the fight against Trichostrongylus infection with mast cells playing a key role. This review focuses on the prevalence, pathogenicity and immunological aspects of Trichostrongylus spp. in humans.

Agro-Pastoralists Viable Options towards Sustainable Climate Change Adaptation in West Pokot County, Kenya

Climate change and variability is one of the most important developmental and environmental challenges on sustainable agricultural productions threatening small scale agro pastoral community livelihoods. This study examines how the agro pastoral community respond to the current and future weather and climate risks and recommend viable options towards sustainable climate change adaptation by small scale agro pastoralist community in West Pokot County, Kenya. The study adopted mixed research design combining both quantitative and qualitative data sources using stratified, purposive and random sampling techniques. Primary data was collected from a sample of 384 household heads and validated through focused group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and general observations. Data collected on perception to climate change were coded and analysed using descriptive and qualitative content analysis. The study found that the community have a thorough knowledge and understanding of their environment with perceptions revealing degradation of the available natural resources largely due to deforestation arising from agricultural land expansion. Drought, deforestation, landslides, floods and soil erosion are some of the major events adversely affect crop and livestock and contribute to vulnerability presently and in the future. The viable options recommended to reduce the present and improve future weather and climatic risks are awareness creation, tree planting, good agricultural practices, government support and agricultural insurance. The findings are key in guiding state and non-state actors together with the community in local level decision making for the conservation and restoration of degradation hotspots towards sustainable management of natural resources, resilience building, poverty reduction, food nutrition and livelihood security.

The prevalence, antimicrobial sensitivity, and factors associated with camel mastitis in Isiolo County, Kenya.

The one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) adapt very well to arid and semi-arid (ASALs) environments and continue to thrive and produce milk even during severe droughts when cattle, sheep, and goats experience high mortalities. These attributes make the dromedaries very vital for the survival of pastoralists, especially in the ASALs of Africa. Mastitis is among the most important diseases of camels and can cause significant economic losses, thereby endangering the livelihoods of pastoralists. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence, risk factors, and antimicrobial sensitivity of mastitis-causing pathogens in lactating camels in Isiolo County, Kenya. This was a cross-sectional study conducted in July and August 2021. A questionnaire was administered to the camel keepers to capture data on herd-level factors. Lactating camels were then examined for any visible signs of clinical mastitis and as well as to capture data on other animal-level factors such as age, weight, and body condition score. A composite milk sample was collected aseptically from randomly selected camels in a herd. The samples were initially tested for somatic cell counts (SCC) using Somatos mini® automatic cell counter. Culture and sensitivity testing was then carried out on any milk sample that had SCC ≥ 200,000 cells/mL. The descriptive analysis was initially used to summarize the continuous and categorical farm and camel factors, while mixed regression models were used to explore the association between/across mastitis and the farm as well as camel-level factors. A total of 210 lactating camels from 23 herds were selected and sampled in this study. The average age of camel keepers was 48.3 ± 16.3 years and they were involved in rearing camels for a mean of about 14.3 ± 8.6 years. The total number of camels in a herd ranged from 10 to 287, with the mean total herd milk production being 34.5 ± 24.9 L/day. The mean daily milk production per camel was 2.8 ± 1.7 L while the range for days in milk was between 21 and 787 days. The average age of camel first calving and the inter-calving interval was 56.3 ± 9.9 and 27.7 ± 9.9 months, respectively. The median parity of the dam was three and the body condition score was two. About 39.7% (83/210) of the sampled camels had clinical mastitis during the current lactation. The overall prevalence of mastitis (SCC ≥ 200,000 cells/mL) in camels was 17.6%. The main pathogens isolated were Streptococcus and Staphylococcus bacteria. Streptococcus isolates were mainly sensitive to ampicillin and resistant to cefaclor. All 18 Staphylococcus isolates were sensitive to tetracycline, while 12/18 isolates were resistant to ampicillin. The factors that were significantly associated with mastitis were the age of the respondent (p = 0.038), the number of years involved in camel rearing (p = 0.024), presence of clinical mastitis since calving (p = 0.039), body condition score (p = 0.040), and age of the dam at the time of examination (p = 0.072). Results from this study revealed that mastitis is an important condition among camels in the pastoral communities of Isiolo County, Kenya. Thus, pastoralists should continue to be aware of and trained on mastitis occurrence and its control in the pastoral ecosystem to reduce potential economic losses.

Rethinking spaces of gendered livestock ownership: pastoralist women’s knowledge, care, and labor

ABSTRACT This article examines the traditionally underemphasized and overlooked roles of pastoral (livestock-keeping) women in managing their livestock, demonstrating the types of, and significance of, their knowledge for pastoral livelihoods and wellbeing. Such knowledge has been regularly dismissed by male pastoralists and by Western scholarship and practice due to a long history of emphasis on men’s spheres of influence with livestock (namely, herding activities away from the home) rather than women’s (namely, livestock caretaking activities and milk management within the home). In re-examining the spatiality and temporality of pastoral livestock management activities through a feminist lens, this article demonstrates how women’s knowledge is key to functional herd health, food security, and cultural mores in pastoral communities. Drawing from a long-term ethnographic and mixed methods research project in southern Kenya’s Narok County, it also demonstrates the gendered complexity of women’s labor and care in human-animal-environment entanglements. In so doing, this study de-emphasizes the notion of men’s formal ownership of livestock to highlight instead the important interplay of gendered labor, spaces, and bodies for pastoralists in accessing and managing livestock and related resources.

Climate Change Impacts Can Be Differentially Perceived Across Time Scales: A Study Among the Tuareg of the Algerian Sahara.

As an Indigenous community of Algeria and the broader Sahel, the Tuareg hold unique ecological knowledge, which might contribute to broader models of place-based climate change impacts. Between January and April 2019, we carried out semi-structured interviews (N=23) and focus group discussions (N=3) in five villages of the province of Illizi, Algeria, to document the local Tuareg community's timeline and ecological calendar, both of which are instruments used to understand place-based reports of climate change impacts. The livelihoods of the Tuareg of Illizi are finely tuned to climate variability as reflected in changes reported in the cadence of events in their ecological calendar (marked by cyclical climatic and religious events). Participants reported rain and temperature irregularities and severe drought events, which have impacted their pastoral and semi-pastoral livelihoods. These reports are aligned with scientifically measured climate observations and predictions. Paradoxically, although participants recall with detail the climatic disasters that happened in the region over the last century, the Tuareg do not explicitly report decadal trends in the frequency of extreme events. The differential perception of climate change impacts across scales can have important implications for undertaking climate change adaptation measures.

Pastoral Khans: from Mongolian Steppe to African Savannah

The developing field of Mongolian International Studies offers a diverse range of research topics. A review of recent articles reflects an emphasis on geo-politics, particularly evolving relations with its superpower neighbours. Whilst state-to-state engagement with China and Russia predominates, regional countries (Japan, Korea) and the US and Europe are examined within the ‘Third Neighbour’ policy. Trade and economics are also studied, from Oyu Tolgoi and mining to the role of the IMF and international agencies. Currently lacking is a focus on human-driven engagement that reflects Mongolian livelihoods, spirituality and community environments. Such social and cultural dynamics are essential to both pastoral and rural livelihoods and to understanding the nation. In 2020-2022 international academic endeavours enabled Mongolian herder representatives to participate in a global drylands exchange network with dryland residents in thirteen countries. The process provided an exceptional opportunity to present Mongolian perspectives to pastoralists and academics from Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. This grounded Mongolian livelihoods and situated rural dynamics in a global context. Here we report key engagements and findings as Mongolian herders shared lives and practices in the context of this international pastoral/drylands project. Moving beyond the political/economic rubric, as this project did, delivers a more representative and complete comprehension of Mongolia to the global international studies community.

The urge for just transition: Evidence from understanding of wood fuel producers' livelihoods and vulnerability in the drylands of Ethiopia

Wood fuel is not only the main source of energy for both rural and urban households but also a vital means of livelihood diversification for rural households to improve livelihood capital in developing countries like Ethiopia. However, the status of wood fuel producers' livelihood capital and their vulnerability is poorly understood in the drylands of Ethiopia. The main purpose of the research is to characterize the livelihoods of firewood and charcoal producers as well as identify sources of livelihoods' vulnerability in the dryland areas of the country. These urge to transit for sustainable energy use. The study used survey data collected from 857 sampled wood fuel producer households and Focus Group Discussions. The data were analyzed descriptively using livelihood measurement indicators and livelihood vulnerability indexes (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity indicators) in the context of farming, agro-pastoralist, and pastoralist communities. Results indicated that generally financial, human, and social capital of wood fuel producers were low whereas natural and physical capital were better. Results also indicated engagement in the production of wood fuel strengthened the producers' livelihood capital and delivered other benefits such as opportunities for livelihood diversification as well as reducing vulnerability and improved livelihoods. The pastoral and agro-pastoral communities' livelihood capital sources were more vulnerable than farming communities. The study has also identified that wood fuel production was one of the major coping strategies employed by the sampled households to mitigate the effects of different shocks. Finally, the study results implied that wood fuel production is the highest priority area of intervention to improve the livelihoods of communities in the dry lands. It is also worthwhile to establish sustainable approaches for wood fuel production keeping the dry land forest and environment safe. This calls policy for a just transition toward an equitable wood fuel production system with the potential to deliver sustainable energy and rural development through the incorporation of wood fuel importance to rural livelihoods.

Forage Monitoring and Prediction Model for Early Warning Application over the East of Africa Region

Rangelands dominate arid and semi-arid lands of the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) region, whereby pastoralism being the primary source of livelihood. The pastoral livelihood is affected by the seasonal variability of pasture and water resources. This research sought to design a grid-based forage monitoring and prediction model for the cross-border areas of the GHA region. A technique known as Geographically Weighted Regression was used in developing the model with monthly rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Rainfall and soil moisture had a high correlation with NDVI, and thus formed the model development parameters. The model performed well in predicting the available forage biomass at each grid-cell with March- May and October-December seasons depicting a similar pattern but with a different magnitude in ton/ha. The output is critical for actionable early warning over the GHA region’s rangeland areas. It is expected that this mode can be used operationally for forage monitoring and prediction over the eastern Africa region and further guide the regional, national, sub- national actors and policymakers on issuing advisories before the season.

Wide-scale subdivision and fencing of southern Kenyan rangelands jeopardizes biodiversity conservation and pastoral livelihoods: Demonstration of utility of open-access landDX database

Globally, rangelands are undergoing rapid social-ecological changes, yet the scale of these changes is rarely measured. Fencing, sedentarization, and land conversion limit access by wildlife and livestock to vital resources such as water and seasonal forage, leading to rangeland degradation. In addition, these changes limit connectivity between wildlife sub-populations, triggering a spiral of decreasing biodiversity and weakening ecosystem function. Moreover, the combination of land privatization, sedentarization and fencing endangers pastoral livelihoods by reducing resilience to drought and diminishing livestock holdings per person. We provide a unique, urgent, and vital snapshot across &amp;gt;30,000 km2 of southern Kenya’s rangeland, covering four ecosystems renowned for their rich megafauna and pastoral people. We document and explore the drivers of extensive fencing (~40,000 km), the proliferation of livestock enclosures (&amp;gt;27,000), and the conversion of rangelands for cultivation (~1,500 km2). Our analyses were based on an open-access database recently synthesized for the region. Fencing is generally more prolific in areas that have been converted from community tenure to private title, especially where land values are raised by agricultural potential and proximity to Kenya’s capital, Nairobi. These factors drive the transfer of land ownership from traditional pastoralists to speculators, eventually resulting in the transformation of rangeland into agricultural, industrial and urban land uses. Space for wildlife (and traditional pastoralism) is limited on private, subdivided land, where livestock enclosures are at their highest density, and where there is less unfenced land and less untransformed land, compared to conservation areas and pastoral commons. Conflicting planning incentives, policies, and economic forces are driving unsustainable and potentially irreversible social-ecological transitions over unprecedented spatial scales. The lesson from southern Kenya is that a range of financial, policy and governance-related interventions are required to allow people and nature to coexist sustainably in African savannas.

Reciprocity of grassland conservation and pastoralist livelihoods: Evidence from comparison between developed and developing regions

Grasslands provide important livestock products such as beef and milk, the main source of daily nutrients for human beings. However, ecological degradation has occurred in nearly 50% of global grasslands, which seriously restricts livestock product supply and impairs human well-beings. Sustainable management measures are explored both in developed and developing regions to curb grassland degradation trend and achieve economic-ecological coordination. We focused on the differences of grassland management measures and their economic-ecological effects between developed regions (US, New Zealand and Western Europe) and developing regions (Inner Mongolia, China) along the “global gold pastures” in middle-latitude zone, by analyzing human-induced grassland productivity changes based on satellite remote sensing, and livestock carrying pressure based on forage-livestock relationship. The results showed the human-induced GPP on grasslands were higher in those developed regions than Inner Mongolia, while the livestock carrying pressures of grasslands were lower, which indicated that the ecological effect of grassland management measures was more positive in the developed regions. Although strict grassland-livestock balance policies had effectively altered the degradation trends in Inner Mongolia grassland, the economic growth still strongly relies on increasing livestock quantity within the grazing limitation, while those developed regions increased the economic benefits and also reduce the ecological pressure caused by livestock grazing in the meantime. Artificial pastures construction together with improved production efficiency effectively mitigated the ecological pressure on grasslands and also brought more economic benefits in those developed regions, which could also enlighten other developing regions to promoting sustainable utilization of grasslands and development of animal husbandry.

Dynamics of land use/land cover: implications on environmental resources and human livelihoods in the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia.

Quantifying the recent LULC changes and associated impacts on pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood systems is important since the effects of LULC changes on environmental resources and human livelihood are not fully understood in our study area. This paper analysed the trend of land use/land cover (LULC) dynamics and its implications on natural resources and human livelihood in the Middle Awash Valley, Central Ethiopian Rift Valley. For the purpose, Landsat imageries of thematic mapper (1987), enhanced thematic mapper (2002) and operational land imager and thermal infrared sensor (2016) were employed and analysed using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) software and techniques, and qualitative data analysis had been performed as well. The results showed that cultivated land expanded at a rate of 2.6% year-1, whereas forestland and grassland shrunk at a rate of 1.2% year-1 and 2.4% year-1, respectively. The invasive Prosopis juliflora has been expanded from 3.7% in 1987 to 37.9% in 2016 at a rate of 1.2% year-1. The introduction of both small- and large-scale commercial irrigation farming and the implementation of villagization programme focused on transforming pastoralists into sedentary lifestyles. Consequently, irrigation farming, launching of villagization, climate variability as in series of droughts, construction of water dam and the rapid expansion of Prosopis juliflora were the major drivers of LULC changes in the study area. Although we found some positive developments such as improvement on infrastructural and social services (e.g. school and domestic water supply), income diversification and ecological benefits from Prosopis juliflora (e.g. saline soil treatment, carbon sequestration and soil erosion control), there were a range of negative impacts resulting from LULC changes in the study area. LULC changes reduced quality of rangeland resources as the ecologically and economically valuable indigenous tree and grass varieties were significantly degraded. As a result, the traditional pastoral livelihood system has been much vulnerable with the LULC dynamism of the study area. Furthermore, the implementation of the villagization programme has brought socioeconomic impacts on the community and challenges on the ecology, e.g. changing productive rangeland to irrigation crop farms. Our research results, thus, suggest the urgent need for relevant policy interventions in support of the pastoral livelihoods and landscapes with the modification in the implementation of villagization as well as irrigation farming programmes and its better management and controlling Prosopis juliflora expansion in the study area.

Can sedentarization decrease the dependence of pastoral livelihoods on ecosystem services?

Seasonal migration is a widely distributed livelihood strategy in pastoral regions worldwide. To improve livelihood levels and prevent grassland degradation, sedentarization has been broadly adopted. However, the dependence of pastoral livelihoods on ecosystem services after settlement has scarcely been studied. Here, we develop a new framework to visualize the contributions of grassland ecosystems, farmland ecosystems and socioeconomic systems to pastoral livelihoods and take Fuyun County, a typical pastoral county in northwestern China, to analyze whether sedentarization decreases the dependence of pastoral livelihoods on ecosystem services by comparing the livelihoods of different household types. Settled households derive less income from ecosystem services than household types that practice grazing. However, settlement has not necessarily reduced the share of income from ecosystem services. Settled household types still rely on grassland ecosystems, especially sedentary farming households. Although pastoralists have undergone tremendous livelihood transitions, livestock have always been the main medium by which pastoral households rely on ecosystem services and the main source of income. Our results emphasize the importance of monitoring pastoral livelihood dynamics and implementing matching development strategies after settlement to reconcile pastoral livelihoods and ecosystem conservation.

Pastoral practices, pressures, and human-wildlife relations in high altitude rangelands of eastern Himalaya: A case study of the Dokpa pastoralists of North Sikkim

The pastoral practices of the Dokpa herders of North Sikkim have been transforming in response to the geo-political and socio-economic changes in the region. Against the backdrop of these changes, this study aims to understand the current state of pastoralism in North Sikkim with three specific objectives: (i) to understand the current rangeland management practices of the Dokpa community; (ii) to examine the social, political and ecological stresses to continuity of traditional pastoral livelihoods; and (iii) to document the baseline on human-wildlife relations. We focused on one of the two subset populations of Dokpa herders of North Sikkim and, using a mixed-methods approach, conducted 12 semi-structured interviews, four key respondent interviews and two focused group discussions. The resource use by the Dokpas is unique, and unlike the rest of the Himalayan range, they access the high-altitude pastures in winters and the lower ones in summer. Pastures in the higher altitudes experience heavier winds, which leads to lower levels of snow deposition — thus ensuring access to dried pasture forage for livestock during the lean season. The decisions pertaining to resource management are taken by the head of the local institution Dzumsa, the Pipon. Primary stresses to the continuation of traditional pastoral practices are fragmentation of pastureland post-Sino-Indian war of 1962 and the consequent establishment of armed forces, livestock depredation by free-ranging dogs followed by wild predators and continued socio-economic marginalisation of the pastoralists under a supposedly egalitarian institutional regime. Extreme climatic events in the recent past have also contributed to significant livestock loss. Dokpa transhumant practices are on an overall decline, with most members of the younger generation shifting to non-herding livelihoods. The availability of alternate livelihood options with the improved connectivity, access to education and development of the tourism industry has led to changing aspirations of the younger generations. In only two of the twelve households we surveyed, the younger generation continues herding, while the rest have moved to the cities and towns. In terms of human-wildlife relations, the respondents mostly hold a positive attitude towards wildlife and conservation actions despite livestock predation by wild predators, since the free-ranging dogs cause the highest livestock loss. With the inputs from the Dokpas, we provide recommendations towards a facilitative environment for the continuation of the traditional herding in the region, which is critical for the survival of pastoralism in North Sikkim, presently hinged on less than two dozen of elderly Dokpas.

Factors Affecting Nonadherence to WHO's Recommended Antenatal Care Visits among Women in Pastoral Community, Northeastern Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Introduction More than half of the pregnant women in Ethiopia do not receive the recommended number of antenatal care visits. In the Afar region, where women have limited access to healthcare services due to pastoral livelihood, evidence on noncompliance to the adequate number of antenatal care visits is scarce. Therefore, this study was intended to examine the level of nonadherence to the recommended antenatal care visits and its associated factors in the pastoral community of Northeast Ethiopia. Methods A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from 04 February to 22 March 2020 among randomly selected 703 women who gave birth within 24 months preceding the survey in the Transform HDR districts of the Afar region. Data were collected using a pretested structured interviewer-administered questionnaire. Data were entered into Epi-data version 4.2 and finally exported to Stata version 16 for further analysis. Bivariable and multivariable binary logistic regression analyses were done to identify factors affecting the nonadherence to the recommended antenatal care visits. Odds ratio with the corresponding 95% confidence interval were computed and the statistical significance of the explanatory variables was declared at a p-value <0.05. Results Nonadherence to the recommended antenatal care visits was 57.0% (95% CI: 53.3%–60.7%). Attending primary (AOR (95% CI): 0.39 (0.22–0.72)) and secondary education and above (AOR (95% CI): 0.25 (0.08–0.77)), being married at the age of 18 years or older (AOR (95% CI): 0.48 (0.36–0.71)), and attending antenatal care at a health center (AOR (95% CI): 0.46 (0.26–0.81)) were associated decreased odds of nonadherence to the recommend visits. Moreover, a higher likelihood of nonadherence was found among women from households not possessing communication media (AOR (95% CI): 1.85 (1.18–2.88)) and those who initiated antenatal care attendance during the second (AOR (95% CI): 5.23 (3.54–7.72)) and third trimesters (AOR (95% CI): 8.81 (1.88–41.20)). Conclusions Nearly six in ten women do not receive the recommended antenatal care visits, consistent with the national prevalence. Women's education, age at marriage, type of health facility, possession of mass media, and timing of antenatal care attendance were associated with nonadherence to the recommended antenatal care visits. Thus, improving women's literacy, dissemination of information regarding antenatal care through mass media, and strengthening interventions targeted to end child marriage are important in scaling up the level of adherence. Moreover, supporting community-based health education through health extension programs is crucial in reaching women with limited access to mass media.

How climate, topography, soils, herbivores, and fire control forest-grassland coexistence in the Eurasian forest-steppe.

Recent advances in ecology and biogeography demonstrate the importance of fire and large herbivores - and challenge the primacy of climate - to our understanding of the distribution, stability, and antiquity of forests and grasslands. Among grassland ecologists, particularly those working in savannas of the seasonally dry tropics, an emerging fire-herbivore paradigm is generally accepted to explain grass dominance in climates and on soils that would otherwise permit development of closed-canopy forests. By contrast, adherents of the climate-soil paradigm, particularly foresters working in the humid tropics or temperate latitudes, tend to view fire and herbivores as disturbances, often human-caused, which damage forests and reset succession. Towards integration of these two paradigms, we developed a series of conceptual models to explain the existence of an extensive temperate forest-grassland mosaic that occurs within a 4.7 million km2 belt spanning from central Europe through eastern Asia. The Eurasian forest-steppe is reminiscent of many regions globally where forests and grasslands occur side-by-side with stark boundaries. Our conceptual models illustrate that if mean climate was the only factor, forests should dominate in humid continental regions and grasslands should prevail in semi-arid regions, but that extensive mosaics would not occur. By contrast, conceptual models that also integrate climate variability, soils, topography, herbivores, and fire depict how these factors collectively expand suitable conditions for forests and grasslands, such that grasslands may occur in more humid regions and forests in more arid regions than predicted by mean climate alone. Furthermore, boundaries between forests and grasslands are reinforced by vegetation-fire, vegetation-herbivore, and vegetation-microclimate feedbacks, which limit tree establishment in grasslands and promote tree survival in forests. Such feedbacks suggest that forests and grasslands of the Eurasian forest-steppe are governed by ecological dynamics that are similar to those hypothesised to maintain boundaries between tropical forests and savannas. Unfortunately, the grasslands of the Eurasian forest-steppe are sometimes misinterpreted as deforested or otherwise degraded vegetation. In fact, the grasslands of this region provide valuable ecosystem services, support a high diversity of plants and animals, and offer critical habitat for endangered large herbivores. We suggest that a better understanding of the fundamental ecological controls that permit forest-grassland coexistence could help us prioritise conservation and restoration of the Eurasian forest-steppe for biodiversity, climate adaptation, and pastoral livelihoods. Currently, these goals are being undermined by tree-planting campaigns that view the open grasslands as opportunities for afforestation. Improved understanding of the interactive roles of climate variability, soils, topography, fire, and herbivores will help scientists and policymakers recognise the antiquity of the grasslands of the Eurasian forest-steppe.

Effectiveness of Grassland Protection and Pastoral Area Development under the Grassland Ecological Conservation Subsidy and Reward Policy

In 2011, the Grassland Ecological Conservation Subsidy and Reward Policy (GECSRP) was implemented in China. The purpose of implementing the policy was to protect grassland ecosystems, secure the supply of livestock products, and increase the income of herders. Through quantitative research data collection methods, based on analysis and comparison of the effects of the GECSRP before and after its implementation in 2011 on grassland ecology, livestock production, and herder incomes on a national scale, this study summarized the effectiveness of the policy and main problems encountered during the policy implementation period and offered suggestions for optimizing the GECSRP. The results show that the GECSRP has been significantly effective in protecting grassland ecology, regulating livestock production, and safeguarding the livelihoods of pastoralists. Under the existing policies, low subsidy and reward standards caused an increase in the overgrazing rate, livestock production remained the main income source for herders, and a lack of technical support reduced forage and livestock quality, which subsequently reduced the income of herders. In conclusion, the existing policies can be improved by gradually enhancing evaluation standards, considering the balance between livestock grazing and grassland ecology, promoting industrialization of livestock products, and valuing the production skills of herders.