Livelihood Diversification Strategies Research Articles

Exploring Livelihood Strategies of Farmers and Herders and Their Human Well-Being in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

National parks have implemented restrictive measures on human activities to protect the ecological environment, which has changed the livelihood dependence and strategies of farmers and herders. Exploring the impact of livelihood strategies on the human well-being of farmers and herdsmen within the national park construction area can help to better develop livelihood intervention measures to achieve sustainable livelihoods for farmers and herders. A total of 329 farmers and herders in Qilian Mountain National Park in China were investigated, and one-way ANOVA and ordinary least squares were employed to analyze the impact of farmers’ and herders’ livelihood strategies on human well-being in different periods of national park construction. Our results show that the livelihood strategies of farmers and herders play an important role in their well-being. Farmers and herders adopted diversified livelihood strategies after the National Park System Pilot officially launched (after 2015). The well-being advantage of adopting a diversified livelihood strategy became evident over time. Specifically, farmers and herders adopting the settlement diversification livelihood strategy were able to better adapt to the development concept of the national park after the national park pilot was officially established (after 2017). However, nomadic, settled agricultural, and pastoral households were always at a disadvantage in terms of well-being. In addition, distance, nationality, gender, and education level were important factors affecting the well-being of farmers and herders. The results of this study are helpful for improving our understanding of the influence of livelihood strategies on the well-being of farmers and herders and the related challenges they face in the construction of national parks.

Diverse farmer livelihoods increase resilience to climate variability in southern Colombia

Climate variability affects agricultural production systems and rural communities, generating risks to food security and increasing rural poverty. Therefore, improving the capacity of rural households to adapt to climate variability has become one of the greatest challenges for international and national institutions. The objective of this study is to analyze the impact of rural households’ livelihood strategies with regard to their vulnerability and adaptation to climate variability. We systematically selected 162 rural households from 10 municipalities in the department of Huila (Colombia). Households were grouped according to their livelihood strategies, using 13 variables representative of their productive characteristics. Subsequently, three indices related to climate vulnerability were determined: a. exposure (climate variability between 1990 and 2012), b. sensitivity, and c. adaptive capacity. For the latter two, the community capitals framework was used. Using the three indices above, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s proposed vulnerability index was determined. We found seven livelihood strategies: i. Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers, ii. Livestock-Cocoa Farmers, iii. Employees-Cocoa Farmers, iv. Cocoa Farmers, v. Diversified Farmers, vi. Landlords-Cocoa Farmers and vii. Coffee Farmers. Degree of vulnerability to climate variability was related to the livelihood strategy of rural households: those best endowed with capitals and with the most diverse livelihood strategies were the least vulnerable (Cattlemen-Cocoa Farmers and Livestock-Cocoa Farmers). While it is necessary to maintain a balance between capitals in the process of adapting to climate variability in rural households, at the community level it is essential to strengthen political capital, which will make it possible to construct and reinforce strategies for adapting to climate variability.

Organic cocoa farmer’s strategies and sustainability

São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) is one of the world’s smallest organic cocoa exporting countries, whose product has a positive socio-cultural and economic impact. Small producers who ensure it, are associated into two cooperatives that experience several difficulties and dilemmas including climate changes and poverty. Diversification of livelihood strategies could lead to wellbeing, poverty and climate mitigation. The aim of this study was to analyse producers’ perception of sustainability related to the organic cocoa production in STP and to explain the influence of different factors on their livelihood strategies (LS). An ordered probit model for disaggregation of factor categories was used for the 2021 period. The results showed that gender, age, family size, members on-farm and off-farm work and professional training courses do not influence livelihood strategies. The important variables for them are education level, perception of social class, insurances and loans and access to services.

‘From Plot to People’: A Photovoice Exploration of South Asian Farmer Livelihood Diversification Strategies When Extra Time and Money are Found Through Zero Tillage Adoption

Impact evaluations are dominated by the application of development economics to assess the direct impacts of change at the plot level, while studies that focus on the impact of such plot-level changes on livelihoods remain rare. This raises questions about the ‘so-what’ of the adoption of labour and money-saving practices such as Zero Tillage to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Piloting a qualitative photovoice methodology with 25 South Asian households, the priorities and strategies of resource-poor South Asian smallholder farmers are explored when they have freed time and financial resources available. Various activities related to agricultural and livelihood diversification are linked by informants to broader impacts on their resilience, life satisfaction and broader livelihood outcomes. Despite being a pilot qualitative study, results indicate that cereal system intensification may be synergistic and not antagonistic to crop and livelihood diversification, especially if framed in whole-of-livelihood-focused initiatives that look for opportunities to utilize saved resources. Likewise, the value of humanizing research through qualitative participatory methods that centre ‘people rather than plots’ is highlighted through the broad linkages that informants identified from their diverse livelihood strategies.

Determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies: In the case of north Wollo zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia

Diversifying rural livelihoods plays a significant role for rain feed-dependent economy of the rural households like in Ethiopia. Hence the objective of the study was to investigate the determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies choice in north wollo zone of Ethiopia. A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used to select 384 rural household heads as a sample in study areas. Primary data was collected from sample rural household heads using an interview schedule. Multivariate Probit Model was employed to identify the factors influencing the rural household heads’ decision to choose livelihood strategies. The model result showed that agriculture livelihood strategy was positively and significantly associated with male headed household, land holding, cooperative membership, and participation in rural productive safety net program; while it is negatively and significantly affected by distance to market. Non-farm livelihood strategy was positively and significantly affected by dependency ratio, education level, total income, and remittance; while it is negatively and significantly affected by the sex of household head and participation in rural productive safety net program. Off-farm livelihood strategy was positively and significantly influenced by sex of household head; while it is negatively and significantly affected by the land holding, total livestock unit, cooperative membership, credit use, participation in rural productive safety net program. Therefore, the study recommends that local government should attempt to promote the above significant determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies choice to build more profitable and sustainable livelihood strategies.

Measuring the intensity of rural livelihood diversification strategies, and Its impacts on rural households’ welfare: Evidence from South Gondar zone, Amahara Regional State, Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, rural households are under risk in the sustainability of sources of income and forced to involve in diversified livelihoods because of the uncertain nature of the agricultural sector. Therefore, the aim of the study is to measure the livelihood diversification strategies and its impacts on rural households’ welfare. The study used cross-sectional data, which is quantitative and qualitative in nature. Through the multistage sampling technique, the study selected 398 samples from the south Gondar zone. The data was analyzed through descriptive statistics, and Tobit and multiple linear regression models. The descriptive statistics analysis showed that income from crop and livestock productions are the most important contributors (97.74%) to livelihood diversification in the study area. The Simpsons Index of Diversity is (0.4) showing that there is a lower livelihood diversification in the study area. The Tobit model regression results showed that education, family size, irrigation, soil conservation, extension service, livestock, and infrastructure facility affect the intensity of livelihood diversification. Furthermore, the multiple regression result revealed that livelihood diversification has a positive impact on the welfare of rural households. The study concludes that to improve the livelihood and welfare of rural households, diversified livelihood strategies should be enhanced by facilitating farm activities through access to inputs, irrigation schemes, and infrastructure and off-farm activities.This article applied the Simpsons Index of Diversity (SID) to estimate the intensity of income diversification.•The method helps to measure the amount of diversified income and its effect on the welfare of rural dwellers.•The study helps to identify the common livelihood strategies and their relevance to improving rural living style.

Determinants of Household Choice of Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Selected Drought Prone Areas of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region, Ethiopia

Determinants of Household Choice of Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Selected Drought Prone Areas of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region, Ethiopia

Factors Influencing Household Livelihood Diversification: The Case of Kebri Dahar District, Korahey Zone of Somali Region, Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, livelihood diversification has become a major source of income for rural communities. This study was carried out in rural kebeles in the Kebri Dahar district, and it focuses on livelihood diversification strategies and the factors that affect livelihood diversification. The collected types of data were from primary and secondary sources based on a qualitative and quantitative basis. Multistage sampling techniques were employed in selecting the representative households of 119 respondents. Furthermore, multinomial logistic regressions were used to analyze and achieve the objective. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyze the collected data. The results revealed that 33.6%, 3.30%, 10.1%, and 52.9% of the respondents participated in the on-farm, off-farm, nonfarm, and combinations of livelihood activities, respectively. The descriptive statistics showed that 52.9% of the respondents diversified their livelihoods and 47.1% did not. The multinomial logistic regression shows that being male-headed as well as the increased age of HH head were found to be significant at a 1% significance level in three livelihood activities which positively and negatively influenced livelihood diversification. Livelihood diversification has a positive impact on security in the study area. Thus, it should be promoted not only by the government and nongovernmental organizations but also by individuals who are interested in livelihood diversification since it implies food security.

Exploring adaptive capacity: Observations from the vulnerable human-coastal environmental system of the Bay of Bengal in India

This article presents the factors that help build the adaptive capacity of individuals to reduce vulnerability from natural threats. The findings are based on primary data on individuals engaged in various livelihood practices in the Digha-Sankarpur- Mandarmoni region along the eastern coastline of the Bay of Bengal in India. Coastal communities have their individual perceptions about their vulnerability to natural threats and associated risks to various assets. Based on perception survey responses, “adaptive capacity” is measured and the determining factors are analyzed with an aim to provide policy guidelines for strengthening the adaptive capacity of people dependent on coastal ecosystem-based livelihoods. Findings show that income security for individuals in coastal systems can be achieved through a livelihood diversification strategy. The scope for individuals to build personal savings, have access to financial institutions, and engage in collaborative actions with immediate neighbors in the community help to prevent multiple losses at the individual level aids in their adaptive capacity. Government actions to provide institutional and governance support and incentives to promote livelihood diversification and personal savings would enhance adaptive capacity through institutional actions. Public investment in public goods and services, including protection and monitoring of natural coastal ecosystems, infrastructure development, technological intervention, providing access to information, and community empowerment, have important roles to play in enhancing adaptive capacity.

An Analysis of Livelihood-Diversification Strategies among Farmworker Households: A Case Study of the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, Vhembe District, South Africa

Rural livelihood diversification has become a central policy in rural development and poverty alleviation. Farmworkers in irrigation schemes are a typical poor sub-group that has received little attention in research regarding their livelihood status and the contribution of diversification. This paper provides evidence derived from a study that was carried out to examine whether farmworkers in the study area diversify their livelihoods and identify their choices of livelihood-diversification strategies and the determinants thereof. Data were collected from 191 randomly selected farmworkers and analyzed using the binary probit model and the multinomial logistic model. Variables considered in the binary probit model—gender, number of dependents, employment type, farming experience, land leasing, and market access—influenced livelihood diversification among irrigation farmworkers in a statistically significant way. The multinomial logistic model analysis considered age, marital status, household dependents, leasing land from employer, farming experience, agricultural training, and access to markets as the statistically significant factors that influence the choice of livelihood-diversification strategies in the study area. The study concluded that rural development policies should consider leasing land to irrigation farmworkers that is adequate to reduce poverty, achieve food security, and sustain the livelihoods of farmworkers in the study area, as it boosts the generation of income.

Rural Livelihood Strategies and Food Security: The Case of Bensa Woreda, Sidama National Regional State, Ethiopia

Livelihood diversification by rural households is expected to contribute significantly to household living standard and food security. Nevertheless, a livelihood strategy plays a crucial role for household income and food security, and still empirically its contribution is unidentified in Bensa woreda. The study addressed three objectives: these are assessing livelihood strategies pursued by rural households based on their wealth status in achieving food security, determining the status of food security as an outcome of different livelihood strategies pursued by rural households and identifying the determinants of rural households` choice of livelihood strategies. A multistage sampling technique was employed to select 190 household heads. The data were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. To achieve the first and second objectives, descriptive statistics such as percentage, mean, chi-square, t and F-tests were used to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of households by wealth status, livelihood diversification strategies, and food security status. The third objective was achieved by using a multinomial regression model (MNL) using data collected through a semi-structured questionnaire involving 190 respondents. The study found that 12.6% of better of (rich) households had diversify their livelihoods by combining from all sources (on-farm+ off farm+ non-farm), 16.2, 13.8 % and 7.5 % of medium farmers diversify their livelihoods mainly from on-farm, combining on-farm and off farm, and from combining on-farm and non-farm, respectively. The result briefly indicates that, more proportion 32.20 % of food secure households was attaining their food from combining on-farm, off farm and non-farm. The study found that 62.11 % and 37.89 % of households were food secure and food insecure respectively in the study area. Furthermore, the result indicated that the mean Kcal of food secure and insecure households is 1210.75, and 4266.241AE. Based on diet quantity analysis, the mean household calorie consumption was 2655.49kcal per AE. The MNL model of marginal effect reveals that age, access to education, land size, livestock holding, extension contact, credit, distance from market, target for Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) and dependency ratio of household were significantly affecting choice the of livelihood strategies. The study, therefore recommends that investing in natural assets such as farm land and livestock ownership by networking valuable extension contact and market access, needs consideration in promoting rural livelihood diversification. Local government should intervene help educate and train rural households by supporting credit access for profitable diversification to off farm, and non-farm besides on farm to sustain their livelihood and ensure food security. Keywords: Livelihood/on farm, off farm, non-farm/: Food security, Multinomial logit models DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/12-22-01 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

Livelihood Diversification as a Strategy to Overcome Food Insecurity Challenges in North Central Ethiopia: The Case of Borena District

Food insecurity remains a major challenge for millions of rural people in Ethiopia despite the government has given more emphasis to foster agricultural productivity rather than livelihood diversification. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to investigate whether livelihood diversification strategy is an antidote to food insecurity or not in Borena district, north-central Ethiopia. The required data were drawn both from primary and secondary sources. The study used a multistage sampling procedure, involving a combination of purposive and random sampling techniques to select 358 sample household heads. Household sample surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were the principal means used to acquire primary data. In analyzing and interpreting the primary data, both quantitative and qualitative research techniques were employed. Quantitatively, statistical tools such as chi-square, one-way ANOVA, and binary and multinomial logistic regressions were employed. SPSS version 24 was used to analyze the quantitative data while a narrative technique was used to analyze the qualitative data. The study found that nearly two-thirds (66.2%) of the investigated households diversified their livelihood. Out of this, 39.6%, 16.5%, and 10.1% of the respondents were engaged in on-farm plus non-farm, on-farm plus off-farm, and on-farm plus off-farm plus non-farm activities, respectively. Analyses of food security showed that 71.7% of the respondents were food insecure. The findings of this study confirmed that livelihood diversification is a key made for way out of food insecurity. This suggests that policymakers need to identify and focus on the most suitable strategies for supporting the diversification of livelihoods for food security.

Determinants of livelihood diversification in rural rain-fed region of Pakistan: evidence from fractional multinomial logit (FMLOGIT) estimation

Sustainable livelihoods in less developed countries are threatened by human, natural, physical, social and financial factors. Pakistan is also facing severe negative impacts of these factors in the form of climate shocks, market imperfections and insufficient formal credit availability on rural livelihoods. This study explores rural Pakistani’s adaptation to these threats by diversifying income sources and explores the determining factors for adopting specific livelihood diversification strategies. The study is based on a quantitative survey of 295 households in three districts of rain-fed rural regions of Pakistan’s Punjab with differing annual rainfall. Results showed that households mitigated against threats to their livelihood by having a diversity of income sources (Simpson Diversity Index = 0.61). Moreover, fractional multinomial regression modelling revealed that greater education was associated with a more diversified livelihood strategy, where income was predominantly derived from off-farm and non-farm livelihood activities. On the other hand, households with older members, more livestock and larger farm size focused their livelihoods on their own farms, or primarily diversified into an off-farm strategy by working on other farms. These findings underscore the importance of improved access to education and infrastructure for livelihood diversification. A policy that focuses on reducing low literacy rates in rural Pakistan may also provide new avenues of livelihood diversifications with enhancement of rural literacy rate to mitigate the risks associated with livelihood strategies of smallholders.

The bushmeat trade in northern Ghana: market dynamics, drivers of trade and implications for conservation

AbstractData on species trade profiles and volumes of wild animals on sale in local markets can provide useful insights into the bushmeat trade, enabling identification of priorities for management and conservation planning. We monitored bushmeat traded in three markets (Sandema, Chiana and Fumbisi) in the Upper East Region of Ghana during October 2018–October 2019. More than 80% of carcasses sold were amphibians (frogs). Species composition and volumes of bushmeat traded varied significantly across markets. Bushmeat sales were highest during the dry season (75% of total biomass traded). The bulk (60% of total biomass) traded in the local markets was transported long distances for resale in major urban markets in southern Ghana. Large-bodied species were comparatively low in number and sold almost exclusively for resale in southern markets. This study highlights the importance of frog meat as an affordable protein source for consumers and as income for traders in an economically deprived region. Seasonal fluctuations of bushmeat sales demonstrated the importance of bushmeat as part of a diversified livelihood strategy for hunters and traders. Furthermore, this study underscores the significant role that long-distance trade networks play as key drivers of the bushmeat trade in these parts of northern Ghana, and highlights the risks posed by current extraction levels for species conservation in this understudied region. Our recommendations include investigating the potential of sustainable amphibian production, improving protection of particular vulnerable species and of the protected areas in the region and exploring alternative livelihoods during the peak hunting season.

Determinants of households’ livelihood diversification strategies to adapt to natural hazards: evidence from ecologically vulnerable haor region of Bangladesh

Determinants of households’ livelihood diversification strategies to adapt to natural hazards: evidence from ecologically vulnerable haor region of Bangladesh

The Impacts of Relocation on the Livelihoods among Different Agro-pastoralist Groups in an Immigrated Village in Tibet

China has achieved a comprehensive victory in poverty eradication. Relocation has been the major measure of the poverty alleviation strategy, and 10 million poor people have successfully been relocated in the ‘Thirteenth Five-Year’ period (from 2016 to 2020). This paper established an integrated evaluation index system for the livelihoods of relocated groups and the sustainability of the village, based on the framework of United Nation 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and using the data from questionnaire surveys in Bailang Village, Tibet. The indicator system quantitatively analyzed the changes in the livelihoods of different agro-pastoralist groups before and after relocation from the three aspects of living standards, livelihood assets, and livelihood strategies. The results showed that relocation led to the improvement of the livelihoods of immigrated households. As the duration after relocation increases, the living standards rise steadily, especially in poverty eradication (SDG1), which increased nearly 100%. Relocation affects the livelihood strategies of the relocated groups, in that the original pure farmers chose more diverse livelihood strategies and the non-farm employment ratio (SDG8) of the village increased. The total SDG score increased from the perspective of the sustainable development of the village. The data also showed that relocation had limited impacts on the livelihoods of the aborigines. The results implied that the relocation policy for poverty alleviation has been implemented successfully in this area. This research could support policy optimization for improving the sustainability of the village and the livelihoods of the immigrants.

Determinants of acceptability of cricket consumption and adoption for improved food security among riparian communities of the Victoria basin, Kenya

The dynamics of weather variation have overstretched animal protein from already overburdened environment; malnutrition is likely to be on the rise with human population growth projected at 9.7 billion by 2050. This has seen cricket consumption for household food security increasing in the past decade. Cricket (acheta domesticus) farming can contribute positively to solving malnutrition problems being experienced among the riparian communities in the Kenyan Lake Victoria Basin. Cricket farming presents a livelihood diversification strategy that can help buffer rural households against food insecurity and provide an alternative source of income. However, its adoption as an alternative source of protein for improved household food security has remained low among smallholder farmers. The study investigated determinants of acceptability of cricket consumption and its influence on adoption for farming as an alternative source of food. The study employed a mixed methods research approach to collect quantitative and qualitative data from 120 trained cricket farmers from selected riparian counties including Siaya, Kisumu and Homa Bay in Kenyan Victoria basin. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were used to summarize quantitative data while content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data by thematic arrangements and similarities across different investigation areas. Based on data analyzed, the results indicated that cultural beliefs, perception and attitude such as cultural value attached to cricket consumption (p = 0.021), crickets are sweet and tender than poultry (p = 0.037) as well as age with a p<0.028, had statistical significance on acceptability to cricket consumption. On the other hand, regression β coefficient of awareness, access and availability were found to have no association with the adoption of cricket farming. The study recommended that: first, the government formulates a policy on farming edible insects as mini-livestock and improved food security. Secondly, further study is needed to determine possible strategies for changing attitude towards cricket consumption for increased adoption by smallholder farmers. Key words: Food security, malnutrition, cricket, acceptability, consumption, culture, attitude, communities, adoption

Determinants of urban households’ livelihood diversification strategies in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia

Livelihood diversification is important for urban development to end poverty and food insecurity problems. In Ethiopia, urban livelihood diversification is quite low specifically in North Shewa Zone. Therefore, this study aims to identify the determinants of livelihood diversification strategies for urban households in the North Shewa Zone. The data were collected through both primary and secondary data collection methods. A multistage sampling technique was employed to select 398 household heads from three urban areas of the North Shewa Zone. A multinomial logistic regression model was employed to analyze the determinant of livelihood diversification strategies in the study area. The results of the model revealed that livelihood diversification strategies were determined by the age of the household head, education status, family size, credit access, market access, and training and extension service positively and the dependency ratio was negative. The study recommends that the zonal and regional governments of Ethiopia should develop a comprehensive urban development policy that could empower off-farm and non-farm urban livelihood diversification strategies besides the farm activities.

Rethinking dispossession: The livelihood consequences of land expropriation in contemporary rural China

AbstractLand expropriation is a major source of conflict in contemporary rural China. Existing research tends to frame land expropriation as ‘dispossession’—local governments expropriating land to pursue economic growth at the expense of villagers' welfare. However, systematic evidence on the livelihood impacts of land expropriation is limited, which has made assessing this interpretation difficult. This study uses nationally representative longitudinal data to examine the immediate effects of land expropriation on villagers' livelihoods as well as how they evolve over the following years. It finds that households with migrant workers saw significant socio‐economic gains after land expropriation through both increased wage income and government compensation. Households without migrant workers, on the other hand, experienced a small deterioration in their socio‐economic position as their income remained stagnant while their living costs increased. These findings cast a different light on the dispossession thesis not only because a significant portion of the rural population makes socio‐economic gains after land expropriation but also by problematizing assumptions that smallholding agriculture is necessarily the most desirable source of livelihood for villagers. Instead, it calls for attention to villagers' increasingly diversified livelihood strategies, as well as the multifaceted role of the state in the process.

Defining Household Typologies Based on Cropland Use Behaviors for Rural Human-Environment Systems Simulation Research: A Case Study in Southwest China.

The dynamics of rural human-environment systems in developing countries have increasingly been attracting attention. Agent-based modeling (ABM) is a valuable simulation tool for detecting complex feedback loops in rural human-environment systems with a ‘bottom-up’ approach. However, such models require the prerequisite analysis of household typology to simulate households’ decision-making process, where a gap exists between having accurate classification criteria and a simplified modeling framework. This study aimed to develop a household typology for two selected counties in southwest China based on multivariate analysis techniques and the classification tree method. Four categories of socioeconomic variables, including labor conditions, resource endowments, economic status, and social connections, were screened as possible factors impacting agriculture practice decisions. The results showed that household diversification in the study area was mainly determined by diversified livelihood strategies of off-farm work, livestock breeding, subsidy dependence, and traditional planting. Five distinct household types were identified: non-farm households, part-time households, livestock breed households, subsidized households, and traditional planting households. The household types were associated with specific cropland use behaviors, and their decision-making behaviors were verified with bounded rationality theory (where the maximization of profits is the primary goal). The quantitative classification criteria obtained in this study were clear and could be easily identified and used by ABMs. Our study provides a basis for further simulation of the complicated rural human-environment systems in southwest China.