Livelihood Change Research Articles

Effects of Social Capital on the Adoption of Green Production Technologies by Rice Farmers: Moderation Effects Based on Risk Preferences

In the context of global climate change and energy and resource scarcity, understanding the factors that influence the adoption of green production technology by rice farmers and promoting a transformation in agricultural practices towards low-carbon and environmentally friendly methods represent a crucial step towards achieving sustainable development. This study employs an ordered logit model to comprehensively explore the influence mechanism of social capital and risk preference within the adoption of green production technology by rice farmers. Research indicates that social capital can significantly and positively affect rice farmers’ uptake of green production technology. Among various dimensions, it can be seen that the role of social participation emerges as a particularly salient factor. The analysis of risk preference demonstrates that it exerts a negative moderating influence. The heterogeneity analysis results indicate that new-generation and part-time rice farmers prefer adopting new technologies if they possess higher social capital. In light of the findings above, it is recommended that the organizational support of cooperatives and collective action be reinforced; the use of digital technologies in agriculture should be increased; the livelihood changes of rice farmers be considered to meet their heterogeneous needs accurately; and the integration of carbon emission reduction policies and green production technologies be strengthened to promote the widespread adoption of green technologies among rice farmers.

Constraints Faced by Rural Women in Changing Livelihoods in Bangladesh: A Study on the Impact of Microcredit through PDBF

The main purpose of the study is to determine the extent of the constraints faced by the women beneficiaries of Palli Daridro Bimochon Foundation (PDBF) on their socio-economic development and to explore the relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of the beneficiaries and their constraints. A total of 3436 women beneficiaries of three upazilas under 55 districts of PDBF constituted the population of the study. A face-to-face interview survey was conducted to collect data from the randomly selected 346 respondents. Among the 13 selected problem items, ‘high rate of interest’ was ranked first (70.81%), ‘more savings have to be deposited while taking the loan’ was ranked second (68.69%) and third (68.40%) was ‘various income generating activities and social development training are inadequate’ The findings revealed a significant relationship between training exposures, decision-making ability, savings deposit, income-generating activities, communication & network, and constraints faced by PDBF beneficiaries. Therefore, the PDBF authorities should consider significant factors in reducing the constraints faced by rural women to change their livelihoods.

Violent farmer–herder conflicts in West Africa: landscape–livelihood interactions and the political ecology of customary dispute resolution

ABSTRACT This paper addresses the relationship among customary authorities, local disputes, and conflict escalation in Benin, West Africa, where violent insurgency is emerging. It uses a mixed-methods approach to investigate how changes in land use and livelihoods affect the capacity of customary authorities to resolve farmer–herder disputes as a prerequisite for violence prevention. It concludes that landscape changes and altered livestock migration patterns have weakened dispute resolution mechanisms to the point where they no longer function effectively. The result is a higher risk of escalation in areas where regional insecurity is linked to local conflicts between farmers and livestock herders.

How to Assess Livelihoods? Critical Reflections on the Use of Common Indicators to Capture Socioeconomic Outcomes for Ecological Restoration workers in South Africa

Social outcomes from conservation and development activities on a local scale are often assessed using five livelihood assets—Natural, Physical, Human, Financial and Social—and their associated indicators. These indicators, and the variables used to measure them, are typically based on ‘common practice’ with limited attention being paid to the use of alternative indicators. In this article, we present a typical survey of socioeconomic benefits for ecological restoration workers in South Africa, and ask whether the common livelihood indicators used are adequate and sufficient, or whether any relevant indicators are missing. Results from the livelihood survey show the value of income, food and education as strong indicators of financial and human assets, and the importance of open-ended questions in eliciting details of workers’ perceived changes in their livelihoods. However, by complementing the survey results with qualitative data from semi-structured interviews and stakeholder workshops, we show how unconventional livelihood indicators and aspects provide a deeper understanding of changes in livelihoods that are tied to restoration projects. We guide scholars and practitioners to advance their process of selecting livelihood indicators, in particular to include three additional types of indicators: intangible indicators to assess life quality; relative indicators reaching across spatial and temporal scales to capture community outcomes and livelihood resilience; and, political indicators to uncover causal relationships.

Investigating the nexus of urban expansion, wetlands, and livelihoods from 1991 to 2021: evidence from Hawassa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Urban expansion in Ethiopia, particularly informal construction, has led to complex and dynamic changes in livelihoods and wetlands. This study examined the effects of urban expansion on the Cheleleka Wetland and the livelihood of the peripheral community in Hawassa. A mixed research design was used to quantitatively analyze Landsat imagery (1991, 2001, 2011, 2021) and socioeconomic data. Key informant interviews and focus group discussion data were narrated qualitatively. The built-up area substantially increased from 718.11 ha in 1991 to 4820.71 ha in 2021. However, agricultural and wetland areas decreased from 8807.58 ha and 8177.04 ha in 1991 to 6382.44 ha and 7030.26 ha in 2021, respectively. Water and forest areas fluctuated. Built-up areas had a significant advantage over other land use and cover classes, with agricultural, wetland, and forest areas being converted into built-up areas throughout the study period. As a result, the area of Lake Hawassa expanded. Currently, the Cheleleka Wetland has been negatively impaired by overgrazing, cutting of grass, animal dung dumps, eucalyptus plantations, agricultural expansion, and urban expansion. Urban expansion has exacerbated social and economic divisions, resulting in the concentration of poor-quality neighborhoods in the peripheral community. To protect the wetlands, alternative livelihoods and participatory land-use planning are crucial.

Zero-Burning Policy in Land Preparation: Social Changes and Its Impact on Communities and the Environment

In Indonesia, forest and land fires have become an annual occurrence, with devastating effects. Following major fires in 2015, the government implemented policies restricting the use of fire in land preparation. This policy has affected the livelihoods of traditional farmers who still use fire for land clearing. The research aims to analyze the social changes that have occurred among traditional farmers as a result of the policy to ban burning in land preparation, and to assess its impact. The study was undertaken in Pulang Pisau Regency (Central Kalimantan) and Ogan Komering Ilir Regency (South Sumatera). Findings reveal two types of social transformation processes, namely, changes in agricultural commodities and changes in livelihoods. In general, fire policy restrictions in land preparation improved peatland ecosystems, but has had a detrimental impact on some rural communities living around peatlands. To anticipate these effects, the government promoted no-burn land preparation techniques and initiated a new paddy field construction scheme. However, both were less successful due to local resistance for their unsuitability in the local context.

The role of agroforestry systems for addressing climate change livelihood vulnerability of farmers of Northwestern Ethiopia

Farmers in Ethiopia have been vulnerable to climate change in recent decades. In the face of this change, farmers have managed agroforestry systems to maintain their livelihoods. However, studies exploring the role of agroforestry in reducing household vulnerability are lacking in Northwestern Ethiopia. The objectives of the study were to (i) investigate households’ livelihoods vulnerability to climate change in Northwestern Ethiopia; (iii) assess the role of agroforestry in mitigating the negative impacts of climate change on farmers livelihoods. Key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, household surveys (387), and focus group discussions were used to collect the data. Descriptive statistics, principal component analysis, the X2-test, and the t-test were run to analyze the data. The findings revealed that households are vulnerable to rising temperatures, rainfall variability, frost, disease and pests, erosion, hailstorms, price hikes, wildlife damage to crops, and health stress. Agroforestry non-practitioners had a higher livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) (0.42 ± 0.081) than practitioners (0.46 ± 0.079). The Livelihood Vulnerability-Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change Index (LVI-IPCC) showed that AF non-practitioners had a higher exposure (0.58), sensitivity (0.54) index, and a lower adaptive capacity index (0.44) than the exposure (0.34), sensitivity (0.38), and adaptive capacity index (0.51) of practitioners. Plant diversity, income level and diversity, livelihood activities, social network, and food security status of farmers were improved by agroforestry. Farmers were therefore less susceptible to adverse climate shocks. Thus, the AF system could be part of future adaptation and resilience programs that provide dependable tools to minimize households’ vulnerability to climate shocks. However, management guidelines, such as understanding local ecosystems, setting clear objectives, choosing suitable species, planning for diversity, considering the market, and regular maintenance and monitoring, are needed for agroforestry to improve its contribution.

Changes in Livelihood and Utilization Pattern of Farm Pond Owners in Drought Regions of Maharashtra, India

The study aimed to assess the impact of farm pond adoption on the livelihood of beneficiaries in drought-prone regions of Maharashtra, India during 2022-23. Data from 160 beneficiaries and 160 non-beneficiaries were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and published sources and data were analysed, The results shows that a significant increase in various aspects of beneficiary activities, including the utilization of women's productive time (MS 0.43 to 2.47), the regular employment generation index (MS 81.54 to 151.04), the livestock composition index (MS 1.46 to 2.39), the enterprises cost-effectiveness index (MS 17.27 to 48.83), the cultivated land utilization index (MS 0.22 to 0.67), and the irrigability index (MS 2.17 to 16.88). In terms of investment, horticultural crops received the highest allocation (MS 401) followed by animal husbandry (MS 360) and agricultural crops (MS 236). Farm pond income was predominantly directed toward purchasing farm inputs (56.88 %), with a smaller portion allocated to equipment (18.13%) and the least to non-agricultural businesses (1.25 %). Overall, the findings showed a significant improvement in the livelihood component of farm pond owners (MS 84.09), with the employment component exhibiting the highest mean score of 81.33, followed by the economic component (MS 75.97). These findings underscore the transformative potential of farm pond adoption in drought-prone regions, as it enhances livelihoods, empowers gender roles, and promotes diversified and sustainable agricultural practices within the locale of the study.

Transitioning Livelihood Strategies Among the Garo Community: A Case Study in Netrakona, Bangladesh

Garo community is one of the greatest neglected instinctive communities of Bangladesh. The Garo people are neglected from their basic needs and it is significant to detect the situation and attitude to draw the real picture of them. This research work predominantly favors on the Garos livelihood pattern from past to present and to ascertain the alter of their livelihood. This study has conducted on the endemic community named Garo living within Durgapur and Kolmakanda upazila area of Netrakona district in Bangladesh. In doing so both historical and explorative data was applied; historical data was mostly procured from secondary sources such as revealed books, journals, articles, reports, census and souvenir. Qualitative research method was adopted for this study and 30 Garo people were chosen by using purposive sampling method for the study. The study uncovers that Garo’s traditional life practices are under the intimidation of the cancellation and over the motion of time they are acquiring completely a new life. In this research, the researchers have found several interior and exterior factors which are mainly accountable for Garo’s livelihood change. Ultimately, while the Garo community is switching then they are rejecting many of their characterized criterion and accommodating to some other livelihood criterion which are directly influenced by Christianity, NGOs, globalization and social development. As a result, many of Garos traditional cultures including language, food habits, dress pattern and even religion are under challenges. They need better communication and transportation system, more educational facilities, more government and non-government assistance including material and financial.

Assessment of rural livelihoods, health and wellbeing in Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa and Narok County, Kenya: A water-energy-food nexus perspective

The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus has become an integral component duly suited to enable sustainable development and an important tool to achieve and sustain various socioeconomic and environmental outcomes, including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. The WEF nexus has become increasingly important in recent years as it can holistically address humankind's current triple challenges, including resource depletion, environmental degradation, and population growth. Socioeconomic factors such as increased population, economic development, and climate change patterns frequently induce unprecedented pressure on WEF resources. From the various climate change model simulations, the climate is likely to increase in the future, exacerbating the demand of the population to access the WEF resources and services. For effective resource planning and decision-making, the availability of WEF resources must be assessed under ongoing climate change. In this regard, this study assessed rural livelihoods, health, and wellbeing indicators within the WEF nexus framework in Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), South Africa, and Narok County, Kenya. The premise was to determine the drivers of livelihood changes by applying the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making to understand the causal linkages between the WEF nexus resources and the sustainable livelihood indicators. Data collected from the literature review, questionnaire/group discussions, and field visit engagements were used to formulate and develop a matrix of indicators to assess livelihoods, health, and wellbeing. A correlation analysis based on the AHP was used to determine the linkages between WEF resources and sustainable livelihood indicators. The multivariate analysis used the correlation matrix to capture the pairwise degrees of relationship between WEF resources and sustainable livelihood indicators in the two study areas. The results show that the resources for sustainable livelihoods in VDM are more sustainable than those in Narok County. The Consistency Ratio values for Narok County and VDM were 0.046 and 0.067, respectively. The resulting composite index (0.143) classified both study sites under the lowly sustainable category. The results are important for informing policy formulation that guides timely interventions to balance socio-ecological systems.

Transformasi Manusia Perahu

Boat people are humans who depend on the sea for their lives. This study aims to determine; 1) the life pattern of the boat people in Bajo Indah Village. The data were analyzed qualitatively descriptively, then presented in the form of a narrative. The results of this study indicate that; 1) There was a change in the lifestyle of the boat people in the village of Bajo Indah caused by the establishment of a tourist area around the coast of Bokori island and the shift of residence from the coast to the mainland of Konawe, namely the village of Bajo Indah. This change in lifestyle can be seen from several aspects, namely; a) changes in livelihoods, b) changes in the education system, c) changes in residence, and d) changes in culture/traditions.

Cultural landscapes in climate change: A framework for resilience in developing countries

Cultural landscapes, particularly cities with rich historical and cultural heritage, play a crucial role in bolstering the resilience of local communities. The occurrence of climate change-induced phenomena jeopardizes cultural landscapes, resulting in the deterioration of historical structures, natural landscapes, cultural heritage, the economy, and the livelihoods of residents in these areas. Therefore, adopting a resilient approach is essential for the integrated management of cultural landscapes. This study develops a model for enhancing cultural landscape resilience to climate change in Nishapur, a historical and cultural city in Iran. Through desk studies, factors affecting the resilience of cultural landscapes to climate change were extracted in the context of developing countries. Subsequently, a model was developed based on the frequency of the occurrence of dimensions and indicators. Snowball sampling was used to distribute questionnaires to 310 members of the academic and professional communities in the field. Next, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using IBM SEM-AMOS to analyze the data and measure the reliability and validity of the model. The findings indicate that the driving factors of change, such as changes in livelihood and social issues, historical fabric and physical environment, natural hazards, biodiversity patterns, and management patterns, can significantly affect the resilience of cultural landscapes to climate change. The developed model can contribute to policymaking in various fields, including urban design and planning, economics, sociology, and cultural heritage conservation. This can play a vital role in creating cultural landscapes that are resilient to the increasing impacts of climate change.

The COVID-19 pandemic and dynamics of livelihood assets in the Kwahu South District of Ghana: determinants and policy implications

ABSTRACT The debate on the changes in livelihood assets as a function of health shocks remains inconclusive, thus spurring attention from scientists and development practitioners across the globe. This paper analyses COVID-19-induced changes in the livelihood assets of rural households in Ghana. While content analysis was employed in qualitative data analysis, the quantitative data set was analysed using a binary logistic regression model. The analyses led to the following conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a more significant decline in financial assets than social assets. Although several socio-economic factors determine changes in the livelihood assets of households, the assets base of migrants was disproportionately affected by the pandemic. Further, women were disproportionately affected since market access restrictions significantly affected their income and savings and, consequently, their ability to buy farm necessities. These results suggest the need to emphasise the resilience of financial assets in times of pandemics, especially for migrants. This study provides new insights to inform the sustainable livelihoods framework, emphasising pandemics and changing livelihood strategies. Studies to uncover the coping strategies of migrants in the context of health shocks are required to complement this position.

Studi kasus Dampak Pembangunan Infrastruktur terhadap Kehidupan Masyarakat Melalui Kacamata Sosiologi: Tanda Tanya Pembangunan Infrastruktur Jalur Kereta Api trans-Sulawesi

This study aims to explore the impact of the trans-Sulawesi railway infrastructure development intervention on people's lives. With a qualitative case study approach, this research will focus on three aspects: economic, social, and environmental, to understand the dynamics of change and community response. In the economic aspect, changes in livelihood, income, and employment opportunities will be examined. Socially, the influence of infrastructure on interaction, cohesion, culture, and local wisdom will be explored. The environment will highlight issues of spatial planning, land use, habitat destruction, and biodiversity threats. The findings are expected to provide a comprehensive understanding of community dynamics in responding to interventions, as well as input for policymakers to design interventions that are more responsive to community needs and aspirations.

The impact of land expropriation on changing livelihoods: The case of displaced peri-urban farmers in Kon and Gashena towns, Ethiopia

The research examines how urban growth and land expropriation have affected farming communities in the towns of Gashena and Kon over the past twenty years. The study used a case study approach, utilizing methods such as open-ended interview checklists, structured questionnaires, and focus group discussions. It reveals a significant reduction in available farmland due to horizontal urban growth, leading to the displacement of numerous farm holdings and disruption of agricultural practices. By analyzing municipal data and employing simple regression modeling, the research anticipates further expansion, underscoring persistent urban growth trends. Economic displacement emerges as a pressing issue, as farmers grapple with finding alternative sources of income, exacerbating food insecurity within affected communities. Moreover, the study unveils diverse impacts on displaced farm holdings, including shifts away from agriculture in livelihoods and substantial income losses. The loss of land assets poses a threat to agricultural productivity and community sustainability. Despite assurances from municipal authorities, the lack of support, guidance, and training contributes to community dissatisfaction. The research underscores the interconnectedness of land, food, culture, and identity, emphasizing the necessity for comprehensive strategies to address the multifaceted impacts of land expropriation. Recommendations include policy interventions, support for transitioning farmers, promotion of sustainable land use practices, and fulfillment of promises regarding support and infrastructure development. Providing training and guidance services for displaced individuals is also crucial for addressing the challenges of land expropriation effectively.

Persistent and implications of Changing Livelihood in Hill Setting of Nepal: A Qualitative Inquiry of Vyas-10 of Tanahun

Nepal has witnessed rapid change in political and socioeconomic dimensions in the last three decades. Migration and remittance are key factors for the changing livelihoods and it implies various forms of Hill settings in Nepal. The aim of the study is to identify the persistence and implications of livelihood changes in the Hill setting of Nepal from the emic perspective. As per the requirement of the study, 30 in-depth interviews were conducted Dumsi village of Vyas-10 of Tanahun district. The study identified that remittance is the key driver of the livelihood change in the Hill setting. The changing livelihood of the village people also changes the gender roles, the age structure of the working age population, change in the caste-based occupation and structural change of the caste-based system and the diversification of the income sources. Agriculture was seen as the main occupation three decades ago, it is a secondary source of livelihood in the villages due to migration and remittances.

Moderating Effect of Entrepreneurship Determinants on the Relationship between Economic Diversification and Sustainable Livelihoods among Fish Farmers in Kakamega County

This study investigates the effect of entrepreneurship determinants on economic diversification and sustainable livelihoods among fish farmers in Kakamega County, Kenya. Entrepreneurship determinants encompass a range of factors including access to finance, training, market information, infrastructure, and supportive institutional frameworks. Economic diversification is vital for reducing reliance on traditional income sources and enhancing resilience to economic shocks, while sustainable livelihoods ensure long-term prosperity while preserving natural resources. The specific objective was to examine the moderating effect of entrepreneurship determinants on the relationship between economic diversification and sustainable livelihoods among fish farmers in Kakamega County. The study was guided by Sustainable Livelihoods Theory. The target population was 4500 fish farmers in Kakamega County from which a sample of 354 fish farmers was selected for the study using the Krejcie and Morgan Table 1970. Data was collected using closed-ended questionnaires. Data collected was analyzed using SPSS version 26. Using descriptive and survey research designs, data was collected from a sample of fish farmers in Kakamega County. The findings reveal significant correlations between entrepreneurship determinants, economic diversification, and sustainable livelihoods. Economic Activity Diversification explained 50.8% changes on sustainable livelihoods. However, when moderated with entrepreneurial determinants, the influence of economic diversification explained 66.3% of the changes in sustainable livelihoods among the fish farmers in Kakamega County. The analysis utilized unstandardized coefficients to elucidate the relationships between variables. In Model 1, Vertical Diversification (B = 0.271, p = 0.000) and Portfolio Diversification (B = 0.488, p = 0.000) significantly influenced Sustainable Livelihoods, while Structural Diversification (B = -0.044, p = 0.493) did not. Model 2 introduced Entrepreneurial Determinant, which exhibited a significant positive effect (B = 0.356, p = 0.000), alongside Vertical (B = 0.111, p = 0.041) and Portfolio (B = 0.329, p = 0.000) Diversifications. In Model 3, while all diversification variables remained significant, the interaction terms showed significant impact, emphasizing the moderating role of entrepreneurial determinants in influencing sustainable livelihoods among fish farmers in Kakamega County. Access to finance and market information emerged as key determinants influencing the ability of fish farmers to diversify their economic activities and achieve sustainable livelihoods. Additionally, supportive institutional frameworks, infrastructure development and access to training were identified as critical enablers of entrepreneurial success among fish farmers. The study concludes by highlighting policy implications and recommendations aimed at enhancing entrepreneurship development, promoting economic diversification, and fostering sustainable livelihoods among fish farmers in Kakamega County and similar contexts.

Factors affecting the change of agricultural livelihoods of farmers adapting to water resource reduction in the highland area in An Giang province, Vietnam

Currently, water shortages are affecting agricultural production in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. Consequently, most farmers have changed their current cropping patterns to other patterns that need less water. The factors affecting this change have not so far been deeply analyzed, especially in the higher terrain areas of the delta. This study intends to identify and understand factors causing change in the agricultural livelihoods of farmers in the highland area of An Giang province. Farm household surveys (90 households) were used to collect information on the changes in agricultural livelihoods and identify the causal factors. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to analyze these affecting factors, based on variables in household livelihood assets. The results show that farmers have at least three livelihood choices: change from rice to vegetable, change from rice to rice and-vegetable, and change from rice to fruit. The results from multinomial logistic regression show that livelihood choices are affected by households’ types of assets: human (number of employees involved, perception of farmers); natural (cultivated land area, the distance between the water source and the cultivated land area); financial (household income); and social (relationship with friends and relatives). Therefore, to increase the sustainability of existing livelihood models, it is necessary to improve the capacity of farmers through technical training sessions, promote social networks within the farming community and provide financial support policies for farmers.

Social and Economic Impacts of Tourism Development on the Local Community of Kampung Pelangi, Semarang

The aim of this research is to explore and analyze the social and economic impacts of tourism development in Kampung Pelangi Semarang on the local community. The main research question to be answered in this study is: "How does tourism development in Kampung Pelangi Semarang affect the social and economic aspects of the local community?" This study will utilize a qualitative approach with data collection methods including in-depth interviews with residents of Kampung Pelangi, participant observation, and documentary studies. This is done to gain a deep understanding of the perspectives and experiences of the local community regarding the impacts of tourism development in their area. Local residents have also been able to capitalize on tourist needs by offering various local products and services, such as handicrafts and regional cuisine. Moreover, the increase in tourist numbers has brought about an increase in income for residents of Kampung Pelangi, both directly through the sale of goods and services, and indirectly through the growth of the local economy driven by tourism. Tourism development in Kampung Pelangi Semarang has had impacts on the social and economic lives of the community. New business opportunities, income growth, and changes in livelihoods are key factors driving economic welfare improvement for residents. Lifestyle changes, social interactions, and positive perceptions of tourism reflect the social impacts that have occurred. Efforts are needed to maintain a balance between tourism development and the preservation of local culture.

Growth and Challenges of Rubber Plantation in North-Eastern States of India

The paper discussed the growth and challenges of rubber plantation in north-eastern states of India. It has been found that there are bright prospects of rubber plantation in the region. Rubber plants were first planted in 1950 in Assam. It helps in changing livelihoods of the tribal communities. Karimkhanj, Karbi Anglong, Kamrup and Goalpara districts are leading in rubber plantation. Rubber plantation is popular among the tribes in the East, West, North and South Garo Hills in Meghalaya. Peren, Mokokchung, Wokha, and Dimapur districts are popular for rubber plantation in Nagaland. Tuensang, Zunheboto, Mon, and Longleng are other districts have more potentiality for such plantation. Rubber board was introduced rubber plantation in Arunachal Pradesh in 1980s. The first rubber tree was planted in Tripura by Forest Department of Tripura in 1963. Tripura and Assam are far ahead then the other states of the region. This region is considered as non-traditional rubber plantation. Rubber plantation have positive impact on the financial status of the cultivators. Lack of skill workers, low price of rubber sheet, low quality of the rubber sheet, shortage of government subsidies, lack of support from the government agencies, and shortage of modern technologies are the basic challenges before the rubber cultivators.