Livelihood Capitals Research Articles

Coupling and Coordination Relationship between Livelihood Capital and Livelihood Stability of Farmers in Different Agricultural Regions

Sustainable livelihood of farmers is the key to rural revitalization. The purpose of this study was to establish livelihood capital cultivation models suitable for farmers in different agricultural regions and to enhance the sustainability of farmers’ livelihoods by selecting four agricultural regions (suburban agriculture, intensive agriculture, plain field agriculture, and mountain agriculture) and 1025 rural households and employing Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to systematically analyze the characteristics of livelihood capital and livelihood stability of farmers in different agricultural regions and the coupling coordination relationship between them based on a Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF). The results show that: (1) The average household livelihood capital is highest in intensive agricultural regions and lowest in mountain agricultural regions. (2) Farmers in suburban agricultural regions have a variety of sources of income; thus, the livelihood stability is the highest. while it is lowest in intensive agricultural regions. (3) The coupling coordination degree of livelihood capital and livelihood stability in suburban agricultural regions and plain field agricultural regions is primary coordination, while in intensive agricultural regions and mountain agricultural regions, livelihood capital and stability are slightly out of balance.

Urban mining versus Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): An interrogation of their contribution to sustainable livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa

Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling and artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) are activities that are increasingly finding uptake as a means of providing livelihoods in the face of high unemployment, especially in the developing world. Informal e-waste recycling is typically practiced by individuals or groups of people who collect end-of-use and end-of-life electronic and electrical equipment which they can repair or refurbish and resell as well as break down to sell valuable components. E-waste recycling is a form of urban mining; thus, the intention of the paper is to draw parallels between this form of mining and artisanal gold mining. Artisanal miners extract virgin minerals while ‘urban miners’ reclaim metals from various waste streams. Both sectors are characterized by high levels of informality and their activities are largely practiced as a means of livelihood. We used the sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF) as a tool to draw this comparison based on available literature on the two sectors, complemented by anecdotal field data. It was found that the livelihood capitals are similar between the two sectors and that there are strong similarities in the vulnerability contexts, with a notable difference being that informal ASM, which has a more significant interaction with the natural environment, places higher demands on natural and physical capital such as land and water pollution and limited access to transport. Recommendations are made on how to strengthen the different capitals of sustainable livelihoods in the hope that these will inform policy decisions on informal sector activities.

Geo-environmental and socioeconomic determinants of poverty in China: an empirical analysis based on stratified poverty theory.

According to the stratified poverty theory, poverty includes individual (people) and regional (place) poverty. Understanding the interaction mechanism between individual poverty and regional poverty is crucial to achieving the UN goal of poverty eradication by 2030. However, at present, the relevant empirical research is still limited by the availability of data. To fill this important gap, based on the multi-source data of poverty census, geo-environmental and socio-economic data of China's 1587 counties in 2013, we used exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) and spatial econometric models (spatial-lag and spatial-error model) to identify determinants of individual poverty and regional poverty in this county. Results show that the spatial distribution of the rural poor in China had strong spatial dependence (Global Moran's I = 0.574). There was a high degree of spatial overlap between individual poverty and regional poverty. The poverty-causing factors were complex and varied across regions and individuals. Disease of family members was the leading factor driving rural areas in Northeast, Central, and Southwest China. Northeast China was mainly affected by the illness and lack of labor skills of family members. The complex terrain conditions were the determinants driving rural poverty in most areas of China. Improved transportation can greatly reduce rural poverty. Geographical isolation or lack of geographical capital caused by complex terrain conditions, backward transportation, and regional closure promoted regional poverty. In turn, regional poverty-causing factors further restricted the improvement of rural residents' self-development ability and aggravated individual poverty. Our findings indicate that individual poverty and regional poverty havedifferent poverty-causing mechanisms and poverty reduction priorities. Effective poverty reduction strategiesrequire the coordinated promotion of individual and regional povertyreduction. The reduction of individual poverty should focus on enhancing the livelihood capital of the poorthrough differentiated policy intervention, while regional poverty alleviationshould focus on creatingafavorabledevelopment environment by increasing infrastructure investment and public service supply.

Experience of Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) in China: A Sustainable Livelihood Perspective

Pro-poor tourism is a powerful tool in China’s poverty alleviation strategy, helping the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 1, no poverty. Thus, the Chinese experience in tourism poverty reduction could be instructive. Considering the dominant role of the government in PPT, this study examines the government’s PPT scheme within a sustainable livelihood framework, uncovering the usefulness of PPT in poverty alleviation. With thematic analysis, 18 cases are systematically coded, and several findings are discovered. Rural development is co-evolutionary with PPT, while livelihood capitals change correspondingly. Specifically, human capital is mentioned as the top priority, followed by economic capital, institutional capital, social capital, and natural capital. Analysis of the cases indicates that livelihood capital comprises multiple themes, and a variety of livelihood strategies are applied conditionally. Additionally, livelihood outcomes are in accord with the criteria of Beautiful Village, characterized by good quality of life. In summary, the success of the PPT in China is a comprehensive project, contributed to by a government-led model, a well-organized community system, effective community participation, and whole-of-society synergy. The study demonstrates that a paradigm shift has been seen in China’s PPT model and sheds light on tourism development in poverty alleviation globally.

Influence of Livelihood Capital Level and Structure on Rural Households’ Payment Willingness for Rural Human Settlement Improvement: Evidence from Hubei Province, China

Rural human settlement improvement (RHSI) is the basis for enhancing rural households’ life quality and promoting their well-being. Studying the impact of the livelihood capital level and structure on rural households’ payment willingness for RHSI will help to clarify the effective focus for implementing a payment system for rural environmental governance, which is of great significance for improving rural human settlements and promoting comprehensive rural revitalization. This study reveals the influence mechanism of the livelihood capital level and structure on rural households’ willingness to pay (WTP) for RHSI. According to the survey data of rural households in Hubei Province, China, the level and structure of rural households’ livelihood capital and their WTP for RHSI are analyzed using the entropy value method and the contingent valuation method. The effects of the livelihood capital level and structure on rural households’ WTP for RHSI are tested using the Probit and Tobit models. The results show significant differences in the level and structure of rural households’ livelihood capital. More than half of the rural households have a payment inclination for RHSI, but the distribution of the willingness payment amounts shows a clear polarization, with the average payment amount ranging from CNY 14.48 to 28.32 per month. Both the total livelihood capital level and classification levels (natural capital, human capital, financial capital and social capital) significantly positively affect the rural households’ WTP. In the livelihood capital structure, both the natural-capital-dominant type and financial-capital-dominant type significantly positively affect the rural households’ WTP, and the human-capital-dominant type significantly positively affects the rural households’ willingness payment amount. Accordingly, this study proposes policy recommendations for the multi-dimensional improvement of rural households’ livelihood capital and the optimization of the livelihood capital structure allocation.

Do Livelihood Capitals Improve Food Security among Smallholder Farmers? Evidence from Horticulture Farmers in East Java, Indonesia

The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of livelihood capitals on smallholder farmers’ food security. This study employed cross-sectional data from 300 smallholder farmers in the Malang Regency of East Java, Indonesia. The household food expenditure and food consumption score (FCS) were applied to assess farmers’ household food security status. Furthermore, the data were analyzed using multiple linear regression to estimate the effect of livelihood capitals on food expenditure, and an ordered probit regression model was used to assess the effect of farmers’ livelihood capitals on FCS. The average farmers' food expenditure was about 68.124 USD per month; using FCS status, 12.33% of respondents were categorized as poor with an FCS of less than 21.5, 67.00% were categorized as borderline with an FCS score of 21.5 to 35, and 20.67% were categorized as acceptable with an FCS of more than 35. The result indicated that social capital (farming group, relations, social activity, and market information) was the most essential variable affecting household food as measured by expenditure as well as FCS, followed by human capital (education, experience, and family labor), financial capital (access to credit), and physical capital (agricultural storage and market distance). These findings suggest that there is a need to improve social access, farmers' abilities, and the agricultural infrastructure of smallholder farmers to enhance their food security.

Retraction: Role of Livelihood Capital in Reducing Climatic Vulnerability: Insights of Australian Wheat from 1990-2010.

Retraction: Role of Livelihood Capital in Reducing Climatic Vulnerability: Insights of Australian Wheat from 1990-2010.

Public Service Delivery and the Livelihood Adaptive Capacity of Farmers and Herders: The Mediating Effect of Livelihood Capital

Improving the provision and equitable accessibility of public services is an important aspect of poverty alleviation and necessary for rural revitalization. Farmers’ livelihood adaptive capacity is an important foundation for rural revitalization, and the mechanism by which it is influenced by public service delivery requires clarification. In this study, we construct a theoretical framework of public service delivery–livelihood capital–livelihood adaptive capacitiy of farmers and herders to measure the level and quality of public service delivery, based on the level of satisfaction of 334 farmers and herders we surveyed. The relationship between the three elements was verified using mediated effects analysis, which helped to accurately identify the key shortcomings of public service delivery and improve the delivery of public services to enhance the sustainable livelihood adaptive capacity of farmers and herders. We found that public service delivery has a significant positive impact on the livelihood adaptive capacity of farmers and herders, while livelihood capital plays an important mediating role, enhancing the direct impact of public service delivery. Thus, the government should pay attention to this transfer mechanism and actively cultivate farmers’ and herders’ livelihood capital to optimize the effects of rural public service delivery.

Impact Assessment of Farmland Lease-Out on Rural Households’ Livelihood Capital and Livelihood Strategy

Rapid urbanization and the gradual disappearance of urban and rural barriers have accelerated rural surplus labor migration. This study focused on the rural household’s livelihood from the perspective of farmland lease-out. Using 382 rural households’ data in Jiangxi Province, we used the seemingly unrelated regression and binary logistic models to analyze the impact of farmland lease-out on rural households’ livelihood capital and livelihood strategy. The results indicated that farmland lease-out did not affect rural households’ human capital but had a negative impact on social capital, natural capital and future life expectation, and had a positive impact on financial capital and physical capital. Farmland lease-out had a significant negative impact on agricultural pluriactivity-type livelihood strategies, while having a significant positive impact on off-farm employment livelihood strategies. In addition, the scale of farmland lease-out had a positive impact on the off-farm pluriactivity and off-farm employment livelihood strategies.

The Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy Drives the Differentiation of Herders’ Livelihoods in Inner Mongolian Desert Grassland

Herders’ livelihood strategies are functions of the capitals at their disposal. Although this thesis has been proved, it has not been applied to livelihood research in the context of conservation initiatives. The Chinese government implemented the Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy (GECP) in 2011. However, the impact of the policy on herders’ livelihoods is still unclear. This study measured the variation in herders’ livelihood strategies in the desert grassland of Inner Mongolia, China, after the implementation of the GECP. This study also analyzed the impacts of livelihood capitals on the livelihood strategies, revealing the shortages of different livelihood strategies. The results showed the following: After the GECP, (1) herders’ livelihood strategies could be grouped into five types based on livelihood capitals. The livelihood capitals of herders varied greatly, resulting in large economical gaps among households with different livelihood strategies. (2) The herders’ livelihood strategies were affected by factors including the education, age, social communication, amount of livestock, income, and subsidy of the herders. (3) The main income sources of different livelihood strategies were both subsidy and livestock husbandry. In general, the GECP drives the differentiation of herders’ livelihoods remarkably. Future conservation initiatives should take the shortages of different livelihood strategies into account.

Analysis of the Difference in Changes to Farmers’ Livelihood Capital under Different Land Transfer Modes—A Case Study of Manas County, Xinjiang, China

Farmers’ livelihoods alter as a direct result of land transfer. This study examined the impacts of land transfer on several indicators of farmers’ livelihood capital, as well as variations in the effects of different land transfer methods on farmers’ capital, in an effort more effectively to enhance farmers’ livelihoods. To compare the changes in farmers’ livelihood capital under four different modes—the farmers’ spontaneous model, centralized and continuous, joint-stock cooperative, and leaseback and re-contracting—this study calculated farmers’ livelihood capital index based on 600 questionnaires in accordance with the sustainable livelihood capital framework. The study’s findings indicate the following outcomes: (1) Farmers’ livelihood capital is significantly impacted favorably by land transfers. (2) Different types of farmers experienced different changes in their livelihood capital after land transfer: purely agricultural farmers’ livelihood capital value increased by 0.138, primarily due to an increase in physical capital; agricultural part-time farmers’ livelihood capital value increased by 0.105; non-agricultural part-time farmers’ livelihood capital value increased by 0.081; and non-agricultural farmers’ livelihood capital value increased by 0.081. (3) The most efficient strategy to increase livelihood capital was to use the leaseback and recontracting model with “village collective + planting leadership company” as the primary business organization. The results provide practical guidance for land transfer in Manas County, and valuable suggestions for improving farmers’ livelihoods in arid areas.

Agroforestry systems and their impact on livelihood improvement of tribal farmers in a tropical moist deciduous forest in Bangladesh

This study investigates the composition of and preferences by farmers related to trees and crops planted in agroforestry systems, and their role on the livelihood of tribal farmers in a tropical moist deciduous forest in Tangail, Bangladesh. Data was collected from 150 tribal farmers practicing different types of agroforestry systems in Madhupur Sal forest, using a mixed-method strategy that included a survey, focus group discussion, key informant interviews, and direct observation. According to the results, tribal farmers used a total of 22 trees and 33 crop species in their existing agroforestry systems, indicating a rich composition and high diversity. Acacia auriculiformis was the most common tree species (with 82% of farmers possessing this species), followed by Mangifera indica (75%), Acacia sp. (73%), and Gmelina arborea (54%). Interviews revealed that agroforestry systems have provided numerous benefits and greatly enhanced farmers’ livelihoods through better access to food, timber, fodder, and fuelwood and greater access to livelihood capitals (except social capital). Though agroforestry practices increase species diversity, provide economic returns, and help farmers maintain their livelihoods, tribal farmers face several constraints including bureaucracy and a lack of alternative market facilities. Our study can be of interest for future policy interventions focusing on sustainable reforestation practices, how to solve the problems faced by the farmers, and livelihood improvement in Bangladesh.

The impact of crop specialization on nutritional intake: Evidence from farm households in China.

BackgroundIn the wake of the severe impact of COVID-19 on the food security of the vulnerable groups in rural areas, the issue of how to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals 2 aims to “Zero Hunger” (SDG 2) and ensure the food safety of farmers has drawn unprecedented attention. Nutritional intake is generally used as an important indicator to reflect family food security. Under the background that Chinese farmers have gradually changed from the traditional diversified production mode to the specialized production of crops, the main purpose of this article is to explore what are the impact of crop specialization on farmers’ nutritional intake? Could the specialization of crop production be taken as an important measure to ensure the food safety of farmers and achieve the SDG 2?MethodsBased on the micro-survey data from 866 farmer households in China, this paper using Seemingly Unrelated Regressions model, Group Regression model and Mediating Effect model to analyze the average and heterogeneous effects of crop specialization on the nutritional intake of farmers, as well as the mediating effect of income. In addition, robustness test and endogenous treatment were performed by using alternative explanatory variables and IV-2SLS method was used to estimate the results.ResultsAfter correcting for endogenous bias, crop specialization had a significant negative impact on energy intake and fat intake of farmers at the statistical level of 5% and 1% respectively, especially for farmers in mountainous areas. Household income played a mediating effect on the effect of crop specialization on farmers’ energy and fat intake, and the proportion of the masking effect was 8.43% and 8.96% respectively. In addition, household financial capital and social capital have a significant positive impact on farmers’ nutritional intake.ConclusionsCrop specialization cannot guarantee the food safety of farmers in terms of nutritional intake. However, when the development trend of crop specialization is irreversible, more attention should be paid to improving the level of various livelihood capital of farmers, especially those in mountainous areas, and to continuously increasing their income to ease and ultimately eliminate the negative impact of crop specialization on farmers’ nutritional intake, which finally make everyone realize the SDG 2.

Does Tibetan Household Livelihood Capital Enhance Tourism Participation Sustainability? Evidence from China's Jiaju Tibetan Village.

Identifying effective transformations to reduce poverty and approach rural sustainability is at the core of the first sustainable development goal of the United Nations. This article offers scientific support for continued efforts in sustaining rural development and livelihood resilience. Many studies have examined drivers of livelihood transition from farming to non-farm activities, especially participation in tourism against the backdrop of rural tourism development. However, few studies have identified ways to measure the level of tourism participation or have discussed how household-level capital influences decisions regarding tourism participation made by Tibetan ethnic households. This article assesses the role of livelihood capital in the adoption of tourism activities at the household level in Jiaju Tibetan Village, an ethnic region that is experiencing struggling agricultural business and developing tourism sector. Using household survey data, this study presents an ordinal logistic regression model to identify the determinants of the household tourism participation level. The results showed that households’ tourism participation was influenced by physical capital (e.g., proximity to major roads, odds ratio = 2.83 at p = 0.024; fixed capitals, odds ratio = 101.19 at p = 0.039), human capital (e.g., availability of family labor, odds ratio = 0.25 at p = 0.004; availability of skilled member, odds ratio = 2.91 at p = 0.002), and social capital (e.g., relatives in governmental sectors, odds ratio = 5.22 at p = 0.044; government payments, odds ratio = 8.78 at p = 0.04), while the influence of financial capital was not significant. The proximity to major roads, availability of skilled members, fixed assets, and direct and indirect support from the government to households were significantly and positively associated with tourism participation level. The effects of household labor availability and annual family income remain unclear. Overall, household livelihood capital plays a critical role in the enhancement of tourism participation in Jiaju Tibetan Village. Our findings have implications for understanding the shift of on-farm occupation to off-farm activities in tourism and for the pursuit of policies contributing to poverty reduction and rural revitalization in China as well as to the Sustainable Development Goals.

The Causal Pathway of Rural Human Settlement, Livelihood Capital, and Agricultural Land Transfer Decision-Making: Is It Regional Consistency?

Despite the increasing interest in understanding the mechanism of household livelihood decisions to increase household livelihood welfare, the combined role of livelihood capitals and human settlements in livelihood decisions is unclear. Therefore, in this paper we carried out extensive empirical research to explore the causal pathway between human settlements (including infrastructure, public services, and social governance) and livelihood capitals (including human, natural, physical, financial, and social capitals) on agricultural land transfer, taking employment choices as an intermediary factor. On this basis, this study analyzed the regional differences in the decision-making mechanisms of agricultural land transfer behaviors in eastern, central, and western regions of China through a multi-group structural equation model. The results demonstrated that capital accumulation can directly increase the possibility of agricultural land inflow (β = 0.130, p < 0.01), but can indirectly reduce the dependence on agricultural land by stimulating non-agricultural employment (β = −0.613, p < 0.01). The improvement in human settlement promotes the agricultural land inflow (outside the western region) and indirectly enhances the willingness to enter into agriculture. The employment choices play a significant mediating role by strengthening the livelihood capitals and weakening human settlements. To achieve the intense agricultural development and sustainable development of rural areas, the improvement of both rural human settlements and household livelihood capitals should be considered.

Livelihood status of small-scale fishermen and determinants of their income: Insights from north-eastern floodplains of Bangladesh

The small-scale fishermen in the north-eastern floodplains are one of the most vulnerable communities of Bangladesh due to their limited income. This study assessed their livelihood status using a sustainable livelihood framework and employed a multiple regression model to evaluate factors influencing their earnings. Primary data were collected from fishermen’s households in Tanguar Haor and Hakaluki Haor through direct interviews. Results revealed that these households lacked human capital, had poor sanitation facilities and suffered from frequent diseases. Their income is very limited as they lack training on other socioeconomic activities to complement their livelihood grounded on fishing. Hence, their financial capital was very deficient and ranked lowest among other livelihood capitals. Fishermen’s major physical assets were the boats used for group and individual fishing. These small-scale fishermen had limited involvement with local administration, and around half of them were members of various NGOs. Women of these households had low participation in fishing or other income activities. The income of the fishermen was influenced by their age, fish catch per day, training and NGO membership. To increase the earnings and improve the livelihood status of small-scale fishers in the floodplain, this study suggests providing training on complementary income generating activities, improving sanitation facilities and providing additional government and non-government support.

Strategi Penghidupan Berkelanjutan Masyarakat Sekitar Kawasan Hutan Di Pulau-Pulau Kecil (Studi Kasus Di Pulau Maitara Provinsi Maluku Utara)

The livelihoods of people in small islands are never disconnected from socio-economic problems and the degraded environment. In the long term, the living system will influence the surrounding environmental condition if the environment utilization is not sustain managed. This research aimed to assess the people's livelihood assets to encourage the living quality of local people. Qualitative and quantitative methods were implemented to analyze the data from questionnaires in deeply direct interviews. The variables to evaluate in the livelihood assets condition consisted of human capital, natural capital, social capital, physical capital, and financial capital, which covered the sampling region in South and North Maitara island. The basic capital of people's livelihood is presented as Pentagon Assets, and its strategies are grouped into intensification, extensification, and migration. The result showed that the component of livelihood capital assets depending on natural capital was 8.99, financial capital was 9.88, physic capital was 12.38, human capital was 15.06, and social capital was 16.64. The intensification and extensification consisted of the percentage of yard utilization was 11%, agriculture land utilization was 37%, empty land utilization was 24%, and arable land utilization was 12%. Moreover, migration as part of livelihood strategies in this region composed of permanent migration was 15%, and circular migration or commuter was 45%. In conclusion, agricultural land utilization is still dominant for local people, exerting circular migration to sustain their subsistence.Keywords: livelihood assets, sustain, environment utilization, small island

Table banking plus certified organic agriculture: an integrated microfinance approach to sustainable livelihoods

ABSTRACT The understanding of integrated microfinance effects has been limited by variability in the sector and microfinance studied. While sectors ranged from health to agriculture and microfinance varied from special-licensed banks to non-governmental organizations; table banking plus organic agriculture received no research attention. This study analyzed the effects of table banking plus certified organic agriculture on sustainable livelihoods. Using propensity score matching, the study found that table banking plus certified organic agriculture increases social and financial capital, but reduces incomes and food consumption. Therefore, table banking plus certified organic agriculture increases livelihood capitals, but reduces livelihood outcomes.

Livelihood Capital Effects on Famers' Strategy Choices in Flood-Prone Areas-A Study in Rural China.

The global climate change has resulted in huge flood damages, which seriously hinders the sustainable development of rural economy and society and causes famers’ livelihood problems. In flood-prone areas, it is imperative to actively study short and long-term strategies and solve farmers’ livelihood problems accordingly. Following the sustainable development analysis framework proposed by the Department for International Development (DFID), this study collects empirical data of 360 rural households in six sample villages in the Jialing River Basin of Sichuan Province, China through a village-to-household field questionnaire and applies the Multinominal Logit Model (MNL) to explore the influence of farmer households’ capital on livelihood strategy choice. Research results show that: (1) In human capital category, the education level of the household head has a significant positive impact on the livelihood strategies of farmers’ families; (2) In physical capital category, farmer households with larger space have more funds to choose among flood adaptation strategies; (3) In natural capital category, house location and the sale of family property for cash have the greatest negative impact on farmers’ livelihood strategies; (4) Rural households with more credit opportunities in financial capital are more willing to obtain emergency relief funds; (5) Farmers’ families helped by the village for a long time will probably not choose to move to avoid floods, but are more likely to choose buying flood insurance. This study provides an empirical reference for effective short and long term prevention and mitigation strategies design and application in rural in flood-prone areas.

Impact of Fiscal Expenditure on Farmers’ Livelihood Capital in the Ethnic Minority Mountainous Region of Sichuan, China

Poverty alleviation is the first battle to realize the rural revitalization strategy in China, and research on the sustainable livelihood of rural households is of great significance to solving the problem of rural poverty. Based on the sustainable livelihood framework, the reasonable scale and structure of fiscal expenditure is an inevitable requirement in producing sustainable livelihood capital toward this aim. In this study, the system Gaussian mixed model was used to analyze the impact of fiscal expenditure on farmers’ livelihoods. Representative survey data uses panel data from 48 counties across Liangshan Prefecture, Ganzi Prefecture, and Aba Prefecture in Sichuan, China. The results are as follows: (1) The average stock of human capital in 2010 to 2015 was the highest in the composition of farmers’ livelihood capital; (2) natural capital and physical capital were positively affected by the total scale of fiscal expenditure, agriculture, forestry, and water expenditure, and the former was negatively affected by general public service expenditure, education expenditure, social security and employment expenditure, and medical expenditure; (3) financial capital and the total amount of livelihood capital were positively affected by the total scale of fiscal expenditure, agriculture, forestry and water expenditure, education expenditure, social security and employment expenditure, and medical expenditure, and negatively affected by general public service expenditure; (4) human capital was positively affected by the total scale of fiscal expenditure, education expenditure, social security and employment expenditure, and medical expenditure; and (5) social capital was positively affected by agriculture, forestry and water expenditure, and education expenditure.