Livelihood Adaptation Strategies Research Articles

Farmer adaptation strategies through local farming systems in Enrekang, Indonesia

Farmers in tropical Indonesia who manage agroecological systems face multiple challenges related to food security. Despite the conditions caused by climate change, these farming households have effectively utilized agroforestry to build food security. However, prolonged dry seasons pose new constraints to their livelihood strategies. This study uses a qualitative methodology and a rural farmer livelihood framework to analyze and evaluate household livelihood strategies, attitudes, and reactions to climate change. The findings show that farmers constantly modify their management techniques using flexible and adaptive decision-making processes to cope with and minimize climate change challenges. Moreover, the role of climate variation as a significant catalyst for change in farming practices is challenging to distinguish from some of the routine problems that farmers face each year. Through knowledge accumulation and adaptive management, farmers in Enrekang utilize several livelihood adaptation strategies to reduce risks in the face of changing climate conditions. In addition, farmers utilize on-farm crops to obtain various ecosystem services that provide services such as food, nutrition, and medicine and improve ecology, nutrient cycling, and climate regulation. Further research is needed to understand how on-farm tree inclusion affects various biophysical properties and the rationale behind species selection.

Rural households' livelihood adaptation strategies in the face of changing climate: A case study from Pakistan

Rural and agricultural communities' adaptation to climate change has gained significant attention owing to many countries' vulnerability to climate change risks. A similar trend has been witnessed in South Asia, a highly climate-vulnerable region, where research has grown dramatically considering the agriculture sector's vulnerability to climate-induced disasters. However, little attention has been paid to the adaptation of the livelihoods of rural households. This research, therefore, takes the case of Pakistan to explore livelihood adaptation strategies of rural households to climate change and investigate the factors that expedite or halt the adoption of livelihood diversification strategies. A multistage sampling design is used in this research, where 480 rural households from the Punjab province of Pakistan were selected and interviewed using stratified and random sampling approaches. A multivariate probit (MVP) regression model is employed to analyze the factors affecting households' adoption of livelihood adaptation strategies. The results show that besides adaptation of agronomic operations (agricultural adaptation strategies), rural households in the study area employed a wide range of strategies to adapt their livelihoods to climate change. These strategies include poultry and livestock farming, value addition of farm produce, trading of animals and farm commodities, small businesses (shops, etc.), daily wage labor, horticultural crop farming, and non-farming jobs. The estimates of the MVP model revealed that respondents' education, household size, income, access to a credit facility, access to farm advisory services, and access to climate forecasts have significantly influenced the choice of livelihood adaptation strategies. Based on these findings, this research recommends that the authorities should make efforts to improve farmers' understanding of the adaptation of climate change risks and educate them to adopt multiple livelihood options to improve the resilience of their livelihoods to climate-induced risks. This research has important policy implications for other countries with similar socio-economic features.

Coastal fishers’ livelihood adaptations to extreme weather events: an analysis of household strategies in Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam

Extreme weather events (EWEs) pose significant threats to fishery-based livelihoods in Quang Ngai (QN) Province, Vietnam. This study describes the types of livelihood adaptations (LAs) that coastal fishers in QN have practiced in response to EWEs and find the varieties in these adaptation strategy choices. In this study, we investigated livelihood adaptation strategies in coastal areas through a household survey and analysis of the collected data using MS Excel. Two sample strategies were used, stratified and random sampling, to select 229 coastal fishers from 11 communes; and data are collected through designed questionnaires. The current study employed statistical disaggregation and comparative methods to analyze coastal fishers’ adaptation strategy choices in QN Province. A range of adaptation strategies were identified consisting of five reactive LAs and eight anticipatory LAs practiced differently by coastal fishers. Among the eight anticipatory LAs, discontinuing production for a certain time is a novel adaptation in QN Province. In addition, a divergence in conducting LAs by production forms was found. On-sand farming and offshore fishers invest in advanced technologies and facilities as adaptive measures. By contrast, fishers who farm in estuaries, lagoons, and nearshore fishing fishers are more likely to change and diversify their jobs. The study’s key findings about livelihood adaptation measures and their differences are significant for improving coastal fisher’s livelihoods in Vietnam. Any efforts at local and national levels in developing mitigation strategies for the impact of EWEs may consider the coastal fisher’s adaptation choices.

The smallholder coffee farmer's livelihood adaptation strategies in Bengkulu, Indonesia

PurposeThis study aims to reconstruct how smallholder farmers implement livelihood adaptation strategies to survive and escape poverty, thereby mitigating or eliminating potential livelihood risks by utilizing their available assets.Design/methodology/approachThis research employed a qualitative approach. For the collection of primary data, the researcher conducted observations and in-depth interviews and engaged with the lives of smallholder farmers during the data collection period.FindingsAmong the various livelihood adaptation strategies, only migration and profit-sharing strategies enable smallholder farmers to escape poverty. However, migration is an unsustainable adaptation strategy. When farmers move to new locations, they often resort to slash-and-burn methods for clearing land, which can lead to forest degradation and deforestation. Profit sharing is a sustainable livelihood adaptation strategy that falls into a different category. This approach can lift farmers out of poverty, increase their income and have no negative environmental impact. Other adaptation strategies include adjustments to traditional agriculture, both on and off-farm diversification, involving the family in income generation, reducing farming costs, practicing frugality in post-harvest processes, converting land from coffee cultivation to other crops and borrowing money and selling owned assets. Smallholder farmers implement these strategies to survive the existing economic conditions.Originality/valueThe profit-sharing strategy was a novel livelihood adaptation approach that previous studies had yet to uncover at the research site. In this strategy, farmers assume the roles of both managers and laborers simultaneously during farming, while toke (the capital owners) play the role of farming funders. The generated profit is then shared between farmers and toke based on the agreement established at the outset of their collaboration.

Climate Change-induced Salinity Intrusion and Livelihood Nexus: A Study in Southwest Satkhira District of Bangladesh

Anthropogenic climate change-induced extremities have turned southwest Bangladesh into one of the most climate-vulnerable regions of the Earth. The southwestern coastal Satkhira District of the country is alarmingly exposed to climate change-driven salinity intrusion. This research attempted to explore the challenges faced by the informal livelihood-dependent households in the presence of salinity, changing livelihood patterns of the salinity-affected households and the nature of sector-specific adaptation strategies aimed at improving livelihood in Satkhira District. Based on the survey of 180 households and the in-depth interview, focus group discussion and participatory rural appraisal, this study uncovers different livelihood challenges faced by the local households. Increasing salinity forced 27% of households to change their livelihood patterns. Livelihood adaptation strategies of the local households are analysed according to their opinions. Saline-tolerant crop cultivation has emerged as a very effective adaptation measure in the area, where replacing crop fields with fish enclosures is not creating a substantial impact on the local community. The importance of nature-based solution has increased in recent days to adapt to the impacts of climate change. More than half of the respondents are satisfied with the recent adaptation initiatives championed by the government and non-government organisations.

The covid-19 pandemic effect to livelihood strategy adaptation of rubber smallholding household: a case study in Songkhla province, the southern Thailand

The objective of this study was to study how COVID-19 affected the livelihood of rubber smallholding households in Songkhla Province. Total 280 households were randomly selected and interviewed using questionnaire. The results revealed that, finding both positive and negative impact of economy, 74.3% of respondents showed that farmers had adequacy of financial assets, fewer consuming products purchased from the community market and switched to buying more products from supermarkets at 69.7%, decreasing incomes at 93.6%, more saving with considering home expenditure at 92.7%, and 74.3% of farmers had more plantation management. 95.4% of farmers reported changes in social capital as a result of the impact on their livelihood, and 56.0% of farmers were required to take part in the government's initiative to enhance their standard of living. The effects of livelihood adaptation strategies on rubber-producing techniques include an improvement in production efficiency, a decrease in production costs, an expansion of production, an increase in the diversify of production systems, the use of hired labor, employment outside the farm sector, and household financial management. When examining the contributing factors, the livelihood adaption strategies of rubber smallholding households can be explained at 63.7% (R2 adjust=0.637) by social effect, economic effect, production technology, and environment effect. It was discovered that social effect was best explained (0.490Zx1). The study recommended farm adaptation strategies, including increasing the use of household labor rather than hired labor, using online market channels with different media, increasing farmers' digital markets to adapt agricultural products and livelihoods, and providing a financial plan, diversifying the production system, and increasing sources of income.

Farm risks, livelihood asset allocation, and adaptation practices in response to climate change: A cross-country analysis

This study aims to understand the impact of farmers’ risk attitude on livelihood assets and their livelihood adaptation strategies to cope with climatic changes. An interview-based survey with farmers is conducted in China and Pakistan, using probit regression models to analyze the data. The results confirm that Pakistani growers’ natural and policy risks, whereas technology and information risks in China, are the main livelihood risks to farm production. Farmers’ natural, physical, social, and human assets in China and Pakistan’s financial, physical, and social assets can protect their livelihoods from farm risks. Pakistan’s physical, social, and economic assets and China’s physical, human, and social assets show contradictory effects. Although farmers in China adopted agrotechnical support, off-farm production, crop variety adjustment, and agricultural engineering, Pakistan’s growers adopted agricultural finance, fertilizer/water management, and adjustment of crop varieties to deal with risks. In addition, social, natural, human, and physical assets revealed significant and positive impacts on Pakistani growers; physical and financial assets positively affect Chinese farmers’ attitudes. Despite Chinese growers’ human, social, and natural assets, Pakistani farmers’ financial and natural assets show comparatively weak effects to adapt and deal with climatic risks. Furthermore, this study recommends agricultural policy measures to cope with climate awareness and adaptive attitudes, and potential practices can be introduced in both studied areas.

Climate variability trends-community perspective-livelihood adaptation strategy nexus in the arid-tropics, Ethiopia

Integration of scientific evidences with community perception and livelihood adaptation strategies is vital for understanding the complex and dynamic nature of climate change. Some climate studies in the study area, however, had focused either on perception or scientific records giving less attention to their integration. This study hence used a mixed method to examine the nexus between climate variability trends, farmers' perception, and livelihood adaptation strategies in the Ethiopian arid tropics. Cross-sectional data, i.e. household characteristics, perception, and adaptation choices to climate variability were collected from 260 households. Farmers' perceptions were compared with meteorological trends for comprehensive understanding. Deceptive and inferential statistics, trend line index, as well as binomial and multinomial logistic regression models were used for data analysis. The farmers' perception of increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall were significantly correlated with meteorological trends. Farmers who perceived climate variability applied a set of strategies (viz., livestock-production improving, crop-yield enhancing, non-agriculture income diversifying) to manage the antagonistic climatic effects. The regression result also demonstrates that apart from knowledge and its correlates, sex, family size, and wealth of the household significantly influenced the farmers' perception and livelihood adaptation choices. Empowering the female-headed community members, access to improved agricultural technologies, non-agriculture income diversification, and intensification of climate knowledge through capacity-building campaigns would improve the farmers' perception and adaptation choices to climate variability. Therefore, to formulate robust and feasible adaptation policies to climate change, decision-makers should consider a mixed approach that integrates perception with meteorological trends.

Vulnerability and Livelihood Adaptation Strategies of Small Island Fishers under Environmental Change: A Case Study of the Barrang Caddi, Spermonde Islands, Indonesia

The changing climate brings various challenges to the fisheries industry, especially to those who depend their livelihood on fish in the small island. Through selective adaptation and mitigation strategies, many households may survive facing the unpredicted climate and weather conditions. Here we study how a small-scale fishers household in Indonesia struggled and searched their ways to face climate change which often resulted in a decrease in catch and income. Using a collective method of quantitative and qualitative, the study showed that the livelihood vulnerability level of Spermonde fishers is 0.56 (highly vulnerable). Three adaptation mechanisms such as ecological, economic and social, were discovered. The fishers often change their fishing ground location and add more fishing gear to catch the declining stock of fish or to make it easier for them to fish in the unpredicted weather. They used an ‘intensification’ strategy in dealing with climate change effects. This strategy is chosen due to the limited capital they have and a full dependency on the natural resources (fish) as their main source of food and income.

FACTORS INFLUENCING USE OF CONTRACEPTIVES AMONG SEXUALLY ACTIVE ADOLESCENTS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN NAIROBI. A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

Purpose: Although knowledge on climate variability is vital in addressing livelihood vulnerability to climate shocks, studies that link climate variability to rural livelihood responses and changes are few. The general objective of the study was to understand perception of climate variability and livelihood response strategies among the communities in the northern part of Kenya.
 Methodology: The paper used a desk study review methodology where relevant empirical literature was reviewed to identify main themes and to extract knowledge gaps.
 Findings: There is need for concerted efforts to build not only on adopted household adaptation strategies but also help them reduce current vulnerability as well as build future resilience.
 Unique Contribution to Theory and Practice: There is need to engage communities to understand their levels of vulnerability and design their own sustainable adaptation action plans. This can be done through adoption of the Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) model which among other measures involve capacity building of community members and development partners to participate in and help local people adapt to their livelihood strategies accordingly.
 Keywords: Climate change impacts, adaptation, livelihood adaptation strategies, climate variability, household

CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND RESPONSE STRATEGIES AMONG COMMUNITIES IN THE NORTHERN PARTS OF KENYA. A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

Purpose: Although knowledge on climate variability is vital in addressing livelihood vulnerability to climate shocks, studies that link climate variability to rural livelihood responses and changes are few. The general objective of the study was to understand perception of climate variability and livelihood response strategies among the communities in the northern part of Kenya.
 Methodology: The paper used a desk study review methodology where relevant empirical literature was reviewed to identify main themes and to extract knowledge gaps.
 Findings: There is need for concerted efforts to build not only on adopted household adaptation strategies but also help them reduce current vulnerability as well as build future resilience.
 Unique Contribution to Theory and Practice: There is need to engage communities to understand their levels of vulnerability and design their own sustainable adaptation action plans. This can be done through adoption of the Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) model which among other measures involve capacity building of community members and development partners to participate in and help local people adapt to their livelihood strategies accordingly.
 Keywords: Climate change impacts, adaptation, livelihood adaptation strategies, climate variability, household

Climate change effects and livelihood-adaptation strategies by the urban poor in Ibadan, Nigeria

As with many developing countries, one of Nigeria’s major challenges to socio-economic development is climate change. This article examines the effects of climate change on the livelihood activities of the urban poor in Ibadan, Nigeria. Adopting a cross-sectional survey design, the research relied essentially on primary data. A structured questionnaire was used to obtain primary data from 481 purposively selected urban residents engaging in different livelihood activities. Data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The Respondents’ Agreement Index was used to measure the respondents’ awareness of climate change and climate change adaptation strategies. Tobit Regression Model was used to analyse the factors influencing climate change adaptation strategies, while the effects of climate change on residents’ livelihood were measured using Multinomial Logistic Regression. Findings revealed that respondents were involved in diverse livelihood activities, ranging from trading to civil service. Long dry seasons, excessive heat, irregular rainfall patterns, and frequent floods make respondents aware of climate change. Low patronage by buyers, low productivity, and reduction in income were the major effects of climate change on livelihood activities. Diversifying income sources was the main adaptation strategy. Strengthening the physical planning system to build the city’s resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related disasters was recommended.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND LIVELIHOODS: ADAPTATION PRACTICES BY RURAL TOURISM COMMUNITIES IN KARIMUNJAWA ISLAND

The impacts of climate change have caused the changes in temperature, seasons, rainfall, sea level, storms, floods, drought, and extreme temperatures. Communities that are at the forefront to get the impacts of climate change are coastal and small island communities, one of which is tourism places. Karimunjawa is as one of areas that get the impact of the climate change. However, in a period of seven years, the development of tourism in Karimunjawa village has experienced a large increase as evidenced by the increasing number of foreign and domestic tourists. This paper aims to describe the phenomenon of adaptation and livelihood resilience in tourism-based villages on Karimunjawa Island as a socio-ecological system by applying the adaptive cycle as an exploratory diagnostic, dynamics, and direction tool of change in the socio-ecological system. This research utilizes a qualitative analysis of the livelihood adaptation strategies adopted by the informants. From the result of this study, it can be perceived that strategies to strengthen the resilience of communities, and especially the poor, must be based on a combination of the most effective measurable and increased commitment to the asset base and measures to provide better services. Therefore, local adaptation strategies are aimed at building livelihood resilience are very important because they will greatly affect the ability of communities to face the impacts of climate change. Tourism development policies in rural areas are very effective in building adaptation capacity and livelihood resilience of local communities. Local government institutions, particularly provincial governments, play an important role in fostering an enabling environment for local adaptation.

Effects of Industrial Park Induced Displacement on Natural, Economic and Social Assets of Small-Scale Farm Holders in Peri-Urban Area of Kombolcha, Ethiopia

To carry out various infrastructural and developmental projects displacement of local peoples from their original land becomes increases. This imposes cost for the poor and marginalized peoples due to the failure to restore their livelihood. Industrial parks are one of the state vital infrastructures to promote industrialization and economy reformation in Ethiopia. At this time government is highly committed in attracting investors to increase FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) of the country. FDI driven by investor’s interest in new industrial park development. The availability of large plot of land including low cost of production, and the increasing demand of FDI triggered IPD (Industrial Park Development) in the study area.The only option for government might be expropriating agricultural land and make available for investment activities. However, the establishment of IP (Industrial parks) fails to exemplify the community context.As a result, this study aimed at explaining effects of Industrial Park Induced Displacement (IPID) on natural, economic and social asset of small scale farm holders in peri urban area of kombolcha city, Amhara, Ethiopia. Furthermore, the study explained about the property rights held by small scale farm holders whose land were expropriated, and how were the small scale farm holders affected by expropriation compensated, the changes in livelihood (natural, economic and social asset) of the displaced farm holders,what areadaptation strategies adapted by households to deal with the new changing conditions. In order to carry out this study, primary and secondary data collection sources such as semi structured interview, observation, desk review, and content analysis of relevant secondary sources have been used. Accordingly, qualitative analysis employed for analyzing the findings of the study.Expropriation of land for IPD implemented with no consultative, consent, and honest involvement of the displaced farm holders. This showed that IPD deprived property rights of displaced farm holders by changing land use from agricultural land towards non farming activity. Furthermore, delay in compensation provision, corruption, and improper calculation generated insignificant amount of compensation. The result of this study indicated that IPD affected displaced farm holders’ access to farm land, grazing land and natural resources, this generated landlessness, joblessness and triggered economic marginalization.of the displaced. Additionally, their relationship with neighbours, their engagenement in labor association and their mutual supporting mechanisms also affected. Moreover, the study depicted out that displaced farm holder’s livelihood adaptation strategies rely on off-farm employment (as permanent and temporary worker), and most of the displaced are fails to adapt. Keywords: IPID, Expropriation, Property rights, Compensation, Natural asset, Economic asset, Social asset, Livelihood adaptation strategies, Small-scale farm holders DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/11-15-02 Publication date: October 31 st 2021

Livelihood risk and adaptation strategies of farmers in earthquake hazard threatened areas: Evidence from sichuan province, China

It is the final year for China to meet its targets for the 2020 deadline in its battle against poverty. Exploring the livelihood risks faced by farmers and their livelihood adaptation strategies in areas where disaster and poverty are intertwined can provide useful insights for the formulation and implementation of government policies for alleviating poverty. Based on survey data from 327 households in the Wenchuan and Lushan counties of Sichuan, China, this study systematically analyzed the four types of livelihood risks faced by farmers and six types of livelihood adaptation strategies they adopted. Multinomial logistic regression models were constructed to explore the correlation between the livelihood risks and the livelihood adaptation strategies. The results showed that: (1) Among the four livelihood risks faced by farmers, social risks were the largest and health risks were the smallest. (2) Among the six livelihood adaptation strategies adopted by farmers, borrowing money and loans was the most, while choosing to wait for government relief was the least. (3) When faced with health risks, farmers preferred to work outside of the home; when faced with environmental risks, farmers preferred to wait for government relief; when faced with financial risks, there were no significant differences between the six livelihood adaptation strategies chosen by farmers; when faced with social risks, farmers preferred to draw on their savings to survive.

Farmers’ Livelihood Adaptability in Rural Tourism Destinations: An Evaluation Study of Rural Revitalization in China

Rural tourism is one of the important ways to achieve rural revitalization and one of the choices for farmers to improve their viability. Therefore, the socio-ecological systems (SES) analysis framework and obstacle factor analysis can provide a new perspective for the evaluation of farmers’ behavior adaptation processes. In order to test the adaptation mechanisms of farmers’ lives in rural tourism destinations, we applied this analysis framework to Ying-Tao-Gou Village in China. The study found that the livelihood adaptation strategies of local farmers can be divided into the categories of “tourism livelihood”, “part-time livelihood”, “worker livelihood”, and “farming livelihood”. The livelihood adaptation of local farmers presented a relatively balanced picture. There were significant differences in the livelihood adaptability of different types of farmers, but tourism farmers had the strongest livelihood adaptability. There were various barriers to the livelihood adaptation of different types of farmers, such as household savings and education level. Finally, to improve the adaptability of farmers’ livelihoods, amendments can be made in policy formulation, tourism development, and by the farmers themselves. This study is of great significance for the government in formulating policies to improve people’s livelihoods, to stimulate the vitality of rural development, and to accelerate the development of rural revitalization.

Urbanization, agricultural land use change and livelihood adaptation strategies in peri-urban Wa, Ghana

Urbanization, coupled with uncontrolled land use change, is posing serious livelihood challenges to households in developing countries. Undoubtedly, urbanization has been observed to be in serious contest with agriculture for land space in peri-urban areas. With urbanization taking a rapid and major toll on livelihoods through the annexing of agricultural lands for farming, this study seeks to examine the livelihood options/strategies available to peri-urban dwellers in the Wa Municipality who depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The study adopts the concurrent embedded mixed methods research design to study 394 randomly selected residents in four (4) of ten (10) peri-urban communities in the Municipality. Structured questionnaires are administered to household heads and complemented with in-depth interviews involving chiefs, family/clan heads, tindanas (Land Priest) and the land sector agencies. The questionnaires are analyzed descriptively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 22 while the interviews are analyzed using the thematic analysis. In determining the relationship between residents’ livelihood adaptation strategies and agricultural land use change as a result of urbanization, a linearity test is performed. The results of the study show that households engaged a mix of non-farm and on-farm livelihood adaptation strategies to response to the agricultural land use change instigated by urbanization. The results of the test of linearity also reveal that trading/petty business, exchange of labor for pay and migration are significantly related to agricultural land use change as a result of urbanization. The study recommends the need for the Municipal Assembly, Ministry of Land and Natural Resources and the Ministry of Agriculture to devise and implement possible alternative livelihoods support systems to help the study communities respond to the urbanization and agricultural land use change.

Drought Stress and Livelihood Response Based on Evidence from the Koshi River Basin in Nepal: Modeling and Applications

Drought vulnerability analysis at the household level can help people identify livelihood constrains and potential mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study used meteorological and household level data which were collected from three different districts (Kavrepalanchowk, Sindhuli, and Saptari) in the Koshi River Basin of Nepal to conduct a drought vulnerability analysis. We developed a model for assessing drought vulnerability of rural households based on three critical components, i.e., exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The results revealed that Saptari (drought vulnerability index, 0.053) showed greater vulnerability to drought disasters than Kavrepalanchowk (0.014) and Sindhuli (0.007). The most vulnerable district (Saptari) showed the highest exposure, the highest sensitivity, and the highest adaptive capacity. Kavrepalanchowk had the middle drought vulnerability index with middle exposure, low sensitivity, and middle adaptive capacity. Sindhuli had the lowest vulnerability with the lowest exposure, the lowest sensitivity, and the lowest adaptive capacity. On the basis of the results of the vulnerability assessment, this paper constructed livelihood adaptation strategies from the perspectives of households, communities, and the government. Many households in Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhuli significantly depend on agriculture as their main source of income. They need to implement some strategies to diversify their sources of income. In addition, the most important livelihood adaptation strategy for Saptari is improving water conservancy facilities to facilitate the allocation of water.

Cascading adaptation of rural livelihood to changing environment: Conceptual framework and experiment from the Koshi River basin

Rural communities in the Koshi River basin, a trans-boundary river basin in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, have been experiencing unprecedented difficulties for adapting with the livelihood challenges arising from floods, droughts and other climatic, environmental and socio-economic stresses. The single purpose adaptation approach often fails to address the multiple challenges arises from cascading effects of climate change at different scales and stages. To fill this gap, we developed a multi-dimensional flexible adaptation framework looking at the four dimensions of adaptation, structure, issue, time, and space (SITS). The SITS framework provides a comprehensive approach for cascading adaptation at trans-boundary river basin level and it could effectively enhance the adaptive capacity and transform livelihood outcome if properly implemented. Following the SITS framework, we examined four cascading adaptation pathways for: i) reducing disaster stressors on livelihoods, ii) enhancing access to crucial livelihood capitals, iii) improving equal rights to livelihood, and iv) strengthening synergies and exploiting complementarities at trans-boundary river basin level. The findings revealed that in the context of changing climate, it is necessary to employ different livelihood adaptation strategies and multiple responses simultaneously or sequentially to successfully adapt to the cascading effects of changing climate. The cascading adaptation may provide a sound basis on which to cope with the climate uncertainty through realistic scenarios of structure, issue, time and space. Its implementation, however, has several obstacles, for example, differences in national system, investment capacity, complexity of trans-boundary basin, remained particularly in trans-boundary river basin where managing transnational trade-offs and harness spatial synergies are critically important.

Water Resource Utilization and Livelihood Adaptations under the Background of Climate Change: A Case Study of Rural Households in the Koshi River Basin

In the Koshi River Basin, the effects of climate change have become clear. Agricultural countries, such as Nepal, depend on farmers’ adaptations to climate change for local sustainable development. Limited livelihood options, unequal access to resources and information, and climate change-related floods and droughts have reduced farmer welfare. Few studies have investigated the effects of altitude in rural areas or examined livelihood adaptation strategies in Nepal. Using a survey of farmers in rural areas at high, middle, and low altitudes in Nepal, this article explores the impacts of climate change-related floods and droughts, as well as the water resource utilization, disaster resilience, and livelihood improvement ability of farmers and the influencing factors. This article adopted participatory rural appraisal to obtain survey data from farmers at three altitudes. Through one-way ANOVA and F-tests, farmers’ perceptions of floods and droughts were analyzed, and through field investigations, their production and water consumption patterns were established. Logistic regressions show that college education, farming income, and domestic water consumption have the strongest impacts on households’ disaster resilience, while non-farm income, male laborer rates, and college education have the strongest impacts on households’ abilities to improve livelihoods. Based on our results, we offer countermeasures and suggestions on education, gender equality, and rural infrastructure construction.