Live Coral Research Articles

Cross shelf gradients of scleractinian corals in the Spermonde Islands, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract. Yusuf S, Beger M, Tassakka ACMAR, Brauwer MD, Pricella A, Rahmi, Umar W, Limmon GV, Moore AM, Jompa J. 2021. Cross shelf gradients of scleractinian corals in the Spermonde Islands, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 1415-1423. Coral reef ecosystems around the world have suffered extensive degradation, including the reefs of the Wallacea region within the Coral Triangle global biodiversity hotspot. Anthropogenic and natural threats can reduce the level of coral reef biodiversity differentially across environmental or impact gradients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in hard coral (Scleractinia) diversity and community structure across an inshore-offshore zonation gradient in the Spermonde Islands, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Data on coral colony species and abundance as well as live coral cover were collected from 10 m2 belt transects at a depth of 6 to 8 m. A total of 72 transects were placed around the 12 island stations in three zones: the inner mid-shelf zone, outer mid-shelf zone and outer shelf zone. Data were analyzed to determine the species richness, and three ecological indices for the hard coral communities were calculated: the Shannon Diversity Index (H'), Similarity Index (E), and Dominance Index (C). A total of 310 hard coral species belonging to 62 genera were recorded. The coral communities were dominated by the genera Fungia, Montipora and Porites, and coral cover was in the 'moderate' category. The number of species was directly proportional to the number of colonies within each zone. Live coral cover was higher in the inner mid-shelf zone and outer shelf zone than the outer mid-shelf zone; conversely, the species richness and coral colony abundance were higher in the outer mid-shelf zone. However, the differences were not statistically significant. The indices H’, C, and E did not differ significantly between the zones. However, Tambakulu Island in Zone 4 had the lowest values of E and H’ and the highest value of C. Findings suggest that most-hard coral communities in the cross-shelf zones of the Spermonde Islands are stable communities characterized by relatively high diversity and low dominance indices.

Structure and spatial variation of the hermatypic coral assemblages of the southern coast of Jalisco, in the Mexican Central Pacific

The hermatypic coral ecosystems of the southern coast of Jalisco, Mexico, present an important species richness and coverage for the Mexican Central Pacific. However, knowledge of these ecosystems of the Jalisco coast is fragmented. Studies have concentrated on few localities, employing a limited number of coral health indicators, and gaps still remain in the knowledge of ecosystem structure and its local and mesoscale variation. This study evaluated spatial variations in the coral assemblage structure in six sites on the southern coast of Jalisco, Mexico, five of which had never been studied before. Sampling was conducted in September 2019, utilizing a total of 35 transects (each of 25 m in length). The cover of each coral species was recorded, as well as other benthic groups and substrate types. Different community attributes, patterns of similarity in coral species and their relationships with the benthic habitat structure were evaluated in each site. The results showed that the observed richness (8 species) represented 83.7% of that expected by chance. Significant spatial variation was found between coral patch sites and coral community sites, in terms of species richness, Shannon diversity and live coral cover, as well as in the structure of the coral assemblage and the benthic habitat. The results evidenced these conditions despite the existence of a considerable dominance of branched corals of the genus Pocillopora. The species that contributed most to the differences between coral patch sites and coral community sites were Pocillopora damicornis, Pocillopora capitata and Pocillopora verrucosa. For their part, the benthic habitat structural elements that favored the differences between site conditions were live coral cover and turf.

Temporal and Spatial Abundance of Acanthaster cf. Solaris (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in a National Park in the Gulf of California, Mexico: 2005–2016

The crown-of-thorns seastar (COTS; Acanthaster spp.) inhabits coral reefs across the Pacific Ocean. Based on studies in the Western Pacific, when densities exceed ∼15 specimens per ha, coral reef degradation due to COTS predation may occur. There is little information about the role of COTS on coral reefs in the tropical eastern Pacific, although previous studies suggested it was not a concern to coral reef conservation in Mexico. In this study, we estimated the abundance and impact of COTS on coral reefs at Espiritu Santo Archipelago National Park (Gulf of California) over a period of 12 years (2005–2016). The mean density (pooled among sites and over time) of COTS was 70 ± 5.1 ind. ha–1 (mean ± SE), with a maximum value of 143.6 ± 30.3 ind. ha–1, recorded in 2006. Densities changed significantly over time and spatially. The highest values were observed at sites located on the west side of the islands. Density was not correlated with seawater temperature or live coral cover. The absence of evidence of major live coral cover declines associated with predation by COTS, even though high densities were observed through the years in the region, lead us to conclude that this seastar does not appear to threaten coral reefs at Espiritu Santo. However, continued monitoring of COTS is required to help understand density fluctuations and to identify threshold densities needed to cause major coral damage in the region.

A snapshot of reef conditions in North Ari Atoll (Maldives) following the 2016 bleaching event and Acanthaster planci outbreak

Coral reefs are degrading worldwide. This study explored the benthic community structure (biotic and abiotic benthic cover and coral composition) at three islands (Rasdhoo, Maayafushi and Vihamaafaru) in the central Maldivian archipelago, 2 years after the 2016 El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the associated mass-bleaching events. Hence, we assessed benthic cover on the same GPS sites and depth (10m) of a subset of reefs that had been previously studied. The islands represent a range of management categories and oceanic influence. Average live coral cover in 2018 was lowest on Maayafushi reefs (0.65±0.41%), a resort island with minimal exposure to oceanic influence. At Rasdhoo, a community island with south-eastern oceanic exposure, live coral cover was 14.70±3.20% and 90% of the colonies were less than 20cm in diameter. At Vihamaafaru, an uninhabited island with oceanic exposure from the west, reefs assessed had a live coral cover of 17.9±6.80%, Acropora spp. remained the dominant taxa, and 35% of colonies were 20cm or greater in diameter. This evident trend, in variation of live coral cover and size of the coral colonies, among the three island settings indicates the greatest potential for recovery of coral cover on reefs with more exposure to oceanic influence.

Rapid coral reef assessment using 3D modelling and acoustics: acoustic indices correlate to fish abundance, diversity and environmental indicators in West Papua, Indonesia.

BackgroundProviding coral reef systems with the greatest chance of survival requires effective assessment and monitoring to guide management at a range of scales from community to government. The development of rapid monitoring approaches amenable to collection at community level, yet recognised by policymakers, remains a challenge. Technologies can increase the scope of data collection. Two promising visual and audio approaches are (i) 3D habitat models, generated through photogrammetry from video footage, providing assessment of coral cover structural metrics and (ii) audio, from which acoustic indices shown to correlate to vertebrate and invertebrate diversity, can be extracted.MethodsWe collected audio and video imagery using low cost underwater cameras (GoPro Hero7™) from 34 reef samples from West Papua (Indonesia). Using photogrammetry one camera was used to generate 3D models of 4 m2 reef, the other was used to estimate fish abundance and collect audio to generate acoustic indices. We investigated relationships between acoustic metrics, fish abundance/diversity/functional groups, live coral cover and reef structural metrics.ResultsGeneralized linear modelling identified significant but weak correlations between live coral cover and structural metrics extracted from 3D models and stronger relationships between live coral and fish abundance. Acoustic indices correlated to fish abundance, species richness and reef functional metrics associated with overfishing and algal control. Acoustic Evenness (1,200–11,000 Hz) and Root Mean Square RMS (100–1,200 Hz) were the best individual predictors overall suggesting traditional bioacoustic indices, providing information on sound energy and the variability in sound levels in specific frequency bands, can contribute to reef assessment.ConclusionAcoustics and 3D modelling contribute to low-cost, rapid reef assessment tools, amenable to community-level data collection, and generate information for coral reef management. Future work should explore whether 3D models of standardised transects and acoustic indices generated from low cost underwater cameras can replicate or support ‘gold standard’ reef assessment methodologies recognised by policy makers in marine management.

Overview of Indicator Coral Fish in Poncan Islands, Sibolga, North Sumatra

This study aims to determine the effect of coral reef conditions on the abundance of coral reef fish indicators of the Chaetodontidae family and to be compared descriptively. This research was conducted in February-April 2020 in Poncan Island coast, Sibolga City, North Sumatra Province. The method used in this research was a survey method, the data obtained directly on site in the form of primary data, while the secondary data was collected from the related institutions and references. The method for quantifying the number of fish used was Underwater Visual Census (UVC), for collecting data on coral reef fish indicators was using the Line Intercept Transect (LIT) method supported by SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus). The results showed that the abundance of coral reef fish indicators for the Chaetodontidae family and coral reefs were in the average of 0-0.052 individuals/m2. The lowest abundance was found at stations 1 and 5, while the highest abundance was seen at station 2 with an average of 0.0248 individuals/m2. The abundance of live coral ranged from 5 - 51.8%. The lowest abundance was at station 1 and the highest was at station 4 with an average abundance of 30.804% which is categorized as moderate. The abundance of indicator reef fish in the waters of Poncan Island was influenced by the condition of coral reefs where in this study the abundance of live coral reefs was less than 23.02%. There was no indicator reef fish at the station.

Quantification of The Effects of Coral Reef Degradation On Butterflyfish Populations in The Southern Great Barrier Reef

Because of their wide abundance on coral reefs, butterflyfishes’ presence or absence can function as an indicator for overall reef health. A survey of both healthy and degraded coral reef flats off Heron Island in Queensland, Australia was conducted to determine the effects of decreasing coral cover on corallivorous fishes. During a four-day period at the end of October, 2013, four species of butterflyfish – two obligate and two facultative corallivorous butterflyfish species – were tallied along two transects in the reef flats. From a total of 291 individuals, there was a significant difference in habitat composition choice between healthy and degraded habitats seen by a p= 2.234e-10. Additionally, means extracted from log-transformed data suggest that the twelve percent decrease in live coral between transects of the healthy habitat caused a disproportionate decrease in fish abundance. This suggests that a minor loss of coral cover can result in a dramatic loss of fish abundance and diversity and may point towards a threshold where living coral can no longer sustain original population abundances of coral reef communities.

Gross calcium carbonate production in Eastern Tropical Pacific coral reefs (Gorgona Island, Colombia)

The production and accumulation of carbonate reef framework is the positive component of reef development. The main organisms participating in this process are corals and crustose coralline algae (CCA) because their combined calcareous skeletons construct and help to consolidate reef frameworks. We assessed the contribution (i.e. gross production) of corals and CCA to the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) budget of the 2 largest and most developed reefs of Gorgona Island (Pacific coast of Colombia). On each zone (back reef [BR], reef flat [RP], reef front [RF], and reef slope [RS]) of these reefs, we measured substrate rugosity, coral (Pocillopora spp.) and CCA cover, colony density for corals, skeletal density for CCA, and growth rates for the estimation of CaCO3 production rates. Pocillopora spp. corals contributed 93.1% of the total carbonate production, while CCA supplied the remaining 6.9%. CaCO3 production was higher at Playa Blanca reef, although CaCO3 production in the RF of La Azufrada (12.31 kg m-2 yr-1) was higher in comparison to the RF at Playa Blanca (8.45 kg m-2 yr-1). Otherwise, CaCO3 production was higher in all other reef zones (BR, RP, RS) of Playa Blanca, although only significantly higher in the BR (2.25 kg m-2 yr-1 at Playa Blanca against 0.29 kg m-2 yr-1 at La Azufrada). The RF contributed the most CaCO3, mainly due to its high live coral cover and rapid coral growth. Although the contribution of CCA is low, they are key for reef stability. CaCO3 production rates reported here (2.86 and 3.80 kg m-2 yr-1 in La Azufrada and Playa Blanca, respectively) are within the limits reported for Eastern Tropical Pacific reefs, and raise hope for the continued existence of coral reefs in an era of increasing threats to this ecosystem.

Natural and anthropogenic-induced stressors affecting the composition of fish communities on the rocky reefs of Ecuador

Natural and human-induced stressors have threatened the sustainability of the fish communities of coral-rocky reefs worldwide in the last decades. The composition of the fish communities on the reefs of Ecuador and the factors affecting spatiotemporal changes are unknown. We studied the influence of the descriptors of structural complexity, the current status of coral and human-induced variables over fish communities. A video transect method was used to assess fish communities in three zones (slope, crest, and bottom) of two reefs during two seasons (rainy and dry). The structure of fish communities was highly influenced by the zones and season; rugosity and live coral affected the fish composition on the crest and slope zones. The fractured coral and derelict fishing gear on coral produced an adverse effect on fish composition over the crest. A multifactorial process causing loss of structural complexity and affecting fish composition was identified, however, periodical assessment is required for a greater understanding of this process.

The role of corals on the abundance of a fish ectoparasite in the Great Barrier Reef

Gnathiid isopods, common fish ectoparasites, can affect fish physiology, behaviour and survival. Gnathiid juveniles emerge from the benthos to feed on fish blood. In the Caribbean, gnathiids are positively associated with dead coral and negatively associated with live coral, due to coral predation on gnathiids. However, such interactions were unstudied in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). Due to recent extreme weather events (two cyclones and one mass warm-water coral bleaching event, 2014–2016), it is now urgent to understand the role of corals on the abundance of these ectoparasites. Here, to understand parasite–coral dynamics at the micro-habitat level, we examined substrate associations of gnathiid isopods on Lizard Island (GBR) using demersal plankton emergence traps. Additionally, we determined whether two abundant hard coral species, Goniopora lobata and Pocillopora damicornis, predate on gnathiids in a laboratory experiment using containers with gnathiids and fragments from each coral species or dead coral as controls. The abundance of gnathiids over natural substrates was higher for dead compared to live hard coral and sand, but not live soft coral. Moreover, we found that free-swimming gnathiids decreased in containers with live coral compared to dead coral controls. This was attributed to predation as we also directly observed a coral ingesting a gnathiid. Our results suggest that dead coral is a suitable microhabitat for gnathiids, but that live coral is not since live corals can predate on gnathiids. We propose that following extreme events, such as cyclones and heat waves, gnathiids might benefit from more dead coral substrate and a decrease in predation by the reduction in coral cover on the reef. We advocate that an increase in the frequency of extreme events may have cascading effects for the fish population through changes in the population of benthos-dependent ectoparasites.

Status of Selected Coral Reef Ecosystem in Zambales, Philippines

Biodiversity loss is one of the current issues we are facing today. From the past years, biodiversity loss still continues particularly in various ecosystems. Coral reef ecosystem is one of the ecosystems near coastal areas where the biodiversity is degrading due to anthropogenic activities and natural causes. Coastal community`s food and livelihood relies heavily on coral reef ecosystems. Illegal fishing and overfishing are the main activities that contribute to the degradation of coral reef ecosystem. As a result, the natural habitat of marine animals commonly found in coral reef ecosystems and mangrove ecosystems are affected that leads to its degradation. An assessment was conducted in order to determine the current status of coral reef ecosystems in the selected coastal municipalities in Zambales. The methods used to assess the coral reef ecosystems are photo transect method, manta tow and snorkeling method to measure and determine the present coral cover of the study areas. Results of the study revealed that only the coral reef ecosystem in Sta. Cruz have good condition status. However, the coral reef ecosystems of Candelaria, Masinloc and Palauig have only fair coral reef conditions. The total average percentage cover of dead corals is higher than the percentage of live hard coral cover. Thus, results indicate that the coral reef ecosystems which serve as habitats of marine organisms are already degraded due to human activities, climate change, natural forces such as strong waves and predators. Keywords : Biodiversity, Coral Reef Ecosystem, Degradation, Status, Human Activities.

Relative influence of environmental factors and fishing on coral reef fish assemblages.

Understanding whether assemblages of species respond more strongly to bottom-up (availability of trophic resources or habitats) or top-down (predation pressure) processes is important for effective management of resources and ecosystems. We determined the relative influence of environmental factors and predation by humans in shaping the density, biomass, and species richness of 4 medium-bodied (10-40 cm total length [TL]) coral reef fish groups targeted by fishers (mesopredators, planktivores, grazer and detritivores, and scrapers) and the density of 2 groups not targeted by fishers (invertivores, small fish ≤10 cm TL) in the central Philippines. Boosted regression trees were used to model the response of each fish group to 21 predictor variables: 13 habitat variables, 5 island variables, and 3 fishing variables (no-take marine reserve [NTMR] presence or absence, NTMR size, and NTMR age). Targeted and nontargeted fish groups responded most strongly to habitat variables, then island variables. Fishing (NTMR) variables generally had less influence on fish groups. Of the habitat variables, live hard coral cover, structural complexity or habitat complexity index, and depth had the greatest effects on density, biomass, and species richness of targeted fish groups and on the density of nontargeted fishes. Of the island variables, proximity to the nearest river and island elevation had the most influence on fish groups. The NTMRs affected only fishes targeted by fishers; NTMR size positively correlated with density, biomass, and species richness of targeted fishes, particularly mesopredatory, and grazing and detritivorous fishes. Importantly, NTMRs as small as 15 ha positively affected medium-bodied fishes. This finding provides reassurance for regions that have invested in small-scale community-managed NTMRs. However, management strategies that integrate sound coastal land-use practices to conserve adjacent reef fish habitat, strategic NTMR placement, and establishment of larger NTMRs will be crucial for maintaining biodiversity and fisheries.

The effect of coral reef degradation on the trophic structure of reef fishes from Bahía Culebra, North Pacific coast of Costa Rica

Fishes play numerous key ecological roles that are critical for maintaining the structure and function of coral reefs. Natural and anthropogenic disturbances can produce structural changes in coral reef habitats, which consequently may affect the trophic structure and dynamics of reef fish assemblages. Therefore, changes in the coral cover of coral reefs, caused by disturbance events can impact the abundance of reef fishes. This study determined the effect of habitat degradation on the trophic structure of coral reef fishes from Bahia Culebra, a bay located in the north Pacific of Costa Rica. We examined whether spatial and temporal changes in live coral cover (LCC) and substrate type between two periods (1995–1996 and 2014–2016) influenced the trophic structure of coral reef fishes. While planktivorous fishes maintained similar abundances between periods, omnivorous fishes (mainly facultative corallivores) were less abundant in sites with low LCC. There was a decline in abundance of mesopredators (e.g. sharks, groupers, snappers), probably because of both shelter loss and overfishing. Macroalgae feeders, herbivores-detritivores and invertivores showed high abundance in disturbed coral reefs, which could be related to predator decline or to increased algal resource abundance. Despite high abundance of herbivorous fishes, high macroalgae coverage persisted during the 2014–2016 period. The results from this study suggest that degradation of coral reef habitats from Bahia Culebra have affected the trophic structure of reef fish assemblages, and potentially the functioning of this coastal ecosystem.

Ecological Factors Mediate Immunity and Parasitic Co-Infection in Sea Fan Octocorals.

The interplay among environment, demography, and host-parasite interactions is a challenging frontier. In the ocean, fundamental changes are occurring due to anthropogenic pressures, including increased disease outbreaks on coral reefs. These outbreaks include multiple parasites, calling into question how host immunity functions in this complex milieu. Our work investigates the interplay of factors influencing co-infection in the Caribbean sea fan octocoral, Gorgonia ventalina, using metrics of the innate immune response: cellular immunity and expression of candidate immune genes. We used existing copepod infections and live pathogen inoculation with the Aspergillus sydowii fungus, detecting increased expression of the immune recognition gene Tachylectin 5A (T5A) in response to both parasites. Cellular immunity increased by 8.16% in copepod infections compared to controls and single Aspergillus infections. We also detected activation of cellular immunity in reef populations, with a 13.6% increase during copepod infections. Cellular immunity was similar in the field and in the lab, increasing with copepod infections and not the fungus. Amoebocyte density and the expression of T5A and a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) gene were also positively correlated across all treatments and colonies, irrespective of parasitic infection. We then assessed the scaling of immune metrics to population-level disease patterns and found random co-occurrence of copepods and fungus across 15 reefs in Puerto Rico. The results suggest immune activation by parasites may not alter parasite co-occurrence if factors other than immunity prevail in structuring parasite infection. We assessed non-immune factors in the field and found that sea fan colony size predicted infection by the copepod parasite. Moreover, the effect of infection on immunity was small relative to that of site differences and live coral cover, and similar to the effect of reproductive status. While additional immune data would shed light on the extent of this pattern, ecological factors may play a larger role than immunity in controlling parasite patterns in the wild. Parsing the effects of immunity and ecological factors in octocoral co-infection shows how disease depends on more than one host and one parasite and explores the application of co-infection research to a colonial marine organism.

Investigation and Study of Epibenthic Corals near Hassyan Power Plant in Dubai

Harbour and breakwaters of Hassyan power plant are located within Jebel Ali marine ecological reserve in Dubai, UAE. Project sea area has a good diversity and healthy environmental condition. Especially lots of live corals were found in this area. The distribution of epibenthic corals should be investigated in order to meet the requirement of environmental protection. The density, species and distribution were quantitatively estimated by the me thod of underwater video and remote sensing. The investigation showed that eighteen live coral species were recorded from six stations. Two of stations were moderately dense and the richest coral communities, while the other four were sparse communities. The highest cover rate was 37.89%. The investigation results provided basis datum for corals protection and translocation.

Effect of fine-scale habitat differences on algal colonisation in a coral-dominated subtropical reef.

Maintaining the coexistence of algae and corals depends on the interactions between them. We investigated these interactions to assess: (1) recruitment patterns of algal turfs over time in dead areas on live corals; (2) the influence of fine-scale differences in coral-dominated environments on algal colonisation; (3) the influence of coral as a substrate for algal recruitment; (4) the invasion potential of algal turf on live coral tissue. This study compared algal colonisation directly on dead or damaged coral areas with algal colonisation on recruitment plates in coral-dominated or -free areas at 23, 154, and 230 days. We also monitored coral colonies over 1.5 years. Filamentous and articulated coralline algae were primarily evident in the early colonisation, reaching stability after 154 days. On a fine scale, the coral-dominated environment showed an increase in number of algal species and coverage. However, coral substrate was selective, with fewer species recruited to this substrate compared to the artificial plates. Furthermore, the competitive dynamics between corals and algal turfs did not result in a winner over time. Thus, algal turf colonisation was influenced not only by coral substrate but also by the reef environment on a fine scale.

Long-term monitoring of benthic communities reveals spatial determinants of disturbance and recovery dynamics on coral reefs

Coral reefs across the globe are facing threats from a variety of anthropogenic disturbances. Consequently, the proportional representation of live scleractinian corals in the benthic community has declined substantially in many regions. In contrast, parts of the reef ecosystem around Mo’orea (French Polynesia) have displayed remarkable rebound potential. Nevertheless, detailed studies of when, where, and to what extent reefs have been disturbed and subsequently recovered in the different reef habitats are lacking. Using long-term monitoring data (2004-2018), we reveal that the spatiotemporal dynamics of benthic communities differ markedly between the contiguous inner (fringing and barrier) and outer (fore) reefs. Coral communities on inner reefs vary spatially but were remarkably stable over 15 yr, exhibiting consistent levels of coral and algal cover, with no evidence for disturbance-driven regimes or community transitions. In contrast, the outer reefs showed marked declines in coral cover following consecutive acute disturbances, but coral recovered rapidly thereafter. Nevertheless, community composition changed significantly, with Pocillopora replacing Acropora as the dominant genus at several sites, indicating a more subtle but potentially critical transition into an alternative state defined by the prevalence of a single, fast-growing genus. Inner reef stability and outer reef recovery provide evidence that the effects of environmental disturbances and chronic anthropogenic stressors can manifest in fundamentally different ways, depending on prevailing conditions. Our results suggest important ecological and physical links between inner and outer reef systems that influence the observed dynamics, emphasizing that reef ecosystem management and conservation strategies need to consider all habitats.

Spatial distribution of coral communities on fringing reefs at Tioman Island Marine Park, Malaysia

Monitoring coral health status is important for effective reef ecosystem management. The present study aimed to determine the coral condition and distribution at twenty sites around Tioman Island Marine Park (TIMP), Malaysia. The Coral Video Transect (CVT) method was used to survey coral, and the Coral Point Count with Excel extension (CPCe) software was used to analyse images for identification and coral coverage measurement. The findings indicate that TIMP reefs had a mean live coral cover of 48.0% ± 0.7, suggesting they were in ‘fair’ coral condition. A total of 254 species, spanning 61 genera and 15 families of scleractinian coral were identified across all reef sites. Following the recent taxonomic classification, coral surveys and past studies revealed 355 species from 67 genera and 15 families of scleractinian coral with additional 30 new species records for TIMP, and 15 for the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Overall, 29 identified scleractinian species are considered rare, 86 vulnerable, and 3 are endangered. Current data also recorded 77 genera from 24 families of hard and soft corals with Acropora, Montipora and Porites predominantly found in reef assemblages. Overall, it can be concluded that the extensive coastal development and widespread tourism activities may have influenced the variations in coral condition and distribution in this Marine Park.

Reef environments of Murciélago Islands and Santa Elena peninsula, Guanacaste conservation area, Costa Rican pacific

The ecology of the marine environments of the Murciélago Islands and the Santa Elena Peninsula have been studied little despite their high biodiversity. This area is influenced by a coastal upwelling. In 2014, 2016 and 2018, the region was visited to assess the composition and diversity of its reef environments. Bottom coverage, macroinvertebrate diversity and abundance, and reef fish biomass were quantified. The substrate was dominated by turf and crustose calcareous algae. Live coral coverage has decreased compared to previous reports for the area. Sea urchins were the macroinvertebrates with the highest densities, while species of commercial interest presented low densities, this may suggest some degree of fishing pressure. 84 reef fish species were identified, making the islands area with the greatest diversity of reef fish in the North Pacific of Costa Rica. Coral biotopes in this region are key to the conservation of connectivity between reef areas due to their high diversity.

Status of Coral Reefs in the Water of Spermonde, Makassar, South Sulawesi

Observations of the condition of coral reefs have been carried out in Spermonde waters from 2015 to 2018. The method used in this observation uses Underwater Photo Transect (UPT), and the data obtained is analyzed using CPCe (Coral Point Count with Excel Extensions) software. The results show that the percentage of coral cover has increased from year to year. The percentage of live coral cover in 2015 was 19.64%, 23.60 in 2016, 23.72% in 2017, and 27.83% in 2018. The increase in live coral cover from year to year is thought to occur due to the availability of nutrients. or increasing public awareness, considering this location is one of the most famous tourist attractions in Makassar. Coral reef health index values can be used to classify coral reef health. Through the analysis of the coral reef health index, an index value of 4 was obtained, which means that the condition of the coral reefs is in the “moderate” category.