Littoral States Research Articles

Rethinking uniqueness of China's sea power development

ABSTRACT China's recent maritime development has given rise to concerns from littoral states and other regional powers, threatened that China could turn out to be an assertive naval power similar to those maritime empires in history. However, Chinese policymakers and scholars reject such concerns. This commentary examines the claim that China has developed a ‘unique' comprehensive projection of sea power. The author suggests that, while China differs from historical maritime powers, this is because of the shift and expansion of the maritime agenda in the contemporary era. China is not unique but rather is meeting domestic policy needs addressing multiple maritime issues. China as a rising sea power is an important case to study contributing to the understanding of contemporary maritime power, especially the use of ‘grey-zone' operations in the Asia-Pacific.

Building Strategic Leverage in the Indian Ocean Region

Over the past decade, China has established a permanent and escalating military presence in the Indian Ocean region. The littoral states, islands, and waters of the Indian Ocean—defined here by the...

China’s Geostrategic Interests in the Indian Ocean Region: Implications for Kenya

Abstract China’s growing influence in the Indian Ocean cannot be gainsaid as the East Asian economic powerhouse engages in a series of activities to secure maritime routes for energy supplies; to guarantee its trade routes; and to exercise increased maritime influence on the sea lines of communication (SLOCs). Since the beginning of the 21st century, Beijing has enhanced its presence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) through construction of ports, increased Chinese naval presence, participation in anti-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden, construction of a military base in Djibouti, One belt One road initiative and 21st century Maritime Silk Road. While China reassures of its peaceful development, critics contend that Beijing’s military-strategic intentions are aimed at dominance in the Indian Ocean. Countries of the IOR are a home to 2.5 billion people. About 80 percent of the world’s maritime oil trade flows through three chokepoints in the Indian Ocean. Moreover, Indian Ocean is emerging as a pivotal zone due to fast growing economies in the region. Due to its geostrategic significance, the Indian Ocean is expected to play a considerable role in the development of East African littoral states including Kenya. This paper analyzes the growing presence of China in IOR and how Nairobi’s engagement with Beijing could enable Kenya to realize its geostrategic interests in the Indian Ocean. The paper recommends that Kenya needs to have effective strategies to maximize the potential from its exclusive economic zone and secure its national interests as a littoral state.

Pollution control mechanism for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore: The proposed designation as a “Special Area” under MARPOL 73/78

AbstractThe Straits of Malacca and Singapore are two of the busiest maritime chokepoints in the world. As straits used for international navigation categorized under Article 37 of the Law of the Sea Convention 1982 (LOSC), littoral States of Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore possess no rights to deny the exercise of the transit passage regime by foreign vessels plying these Straits. As a result, the marine environment of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore is gradually affected particularly by operational discharges from vessels. This article looks at the possibility of designating the Straits of Malacca and Singapore as a “Special Area” under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78). This paper concludes by recommending the most appropriate “Special Area” designation under any of the Annexes of MARPOL 73/78 for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.

The reality of environmental cooperation and the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea

ABSTRACT Using insights from classical functionalism, this article analyses the complex relationship between the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea and the Caspian Environment Programme (CEP). The article pursues three objectives. First, it shows how shared ecological issues challenged individual littoral states and brought their respective governments under the CEP umbrella in 1998. Second, it shows how key actors (UNEP, UNDP, GEF, and World Bank – besides states) are involved in shaping the politics of the Caspian Sea region and how their preferences, both political and economic, and networks affect the capacity, opportunity and will of governments (e.g., ministries, parliaments and presidents) to cooperate. Third, it explains the link between low environmental politics and the uncertain legal status of the Caspian Sea. I find that lessons learned from environmental cooperation spilled over into the discussion of the legal status of the sea, which culminated in the signing of the Convention.

GEOPOLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN AND MARITIME SECURITY CHALLENGES FOR PAKISTAN

Geopolitics and geographical identity of a state holds great significance in today’s arena of International Politics. The geographical sphere is a source of global puissance in regional policy making. From the last few decades, the world has witnessed major variations in regional power dynamics from Atlantic to Pacific and from Europe to Asia. Oceans and seas are an imperative driver of dynamic change and clutches prosperity enigmas from eras. The Indian Ocean, in contemporary world, is a major maritime transit lounge. Global economy relies on this giant oceanic connector as it is an emerging economic gravity center in world’s trade and economic affairs. Hegemonic influence on the littoral states of Indian Ocean is the dire need of Asian economic giants as well as the US and European rivals. Pakistan’s geographic location and its embryonic Gwadar port holds great strategic significance in regional economy, prosperity, security and stability. Notwithstanding, there are certain maritime challenges for Pakistan. The aim of this paper is to identify maritime challenges to Pakistan in terms of CPEC and to highlight possible remedial measures in changing regional geopolitical power dynamics. It can be concluded with a thorough study that Pakistan requires adequate measures to cope up with existing and futuristic challenges in the maritime domain.

Malaysia’s Posture in the Indo-Pacific Construct

The Indo-Pacific (IP), the region covering the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Region, is concurrently shaping the posture of international affairs. As a littoral state and critical partner in the IP construct, Malaysia’s responses to this stance are inevitable due to its geostrategic location in the construct. This article argues that Malaysia’s posture vis-à-vis the IP as that of a ‘neutralist’. The discussion is divided into two sections. The first section describes weaknesses in the quadrilateral security dialogues (Quad) centrality using the features of regional security complex theory (RSCT). The second section discusses Malaysia’s neutrality vis-à-vis the IP construct. The article argues that, while opportunities can be seen in terms of strengthening the existing relations and tapping into new areas of partnership, Malaysia may face challenges in the form of marginalisation and entrapment. Apprehension is still prominent; therefore, the concept is in a ‘wait and see’ mode. The article concludes that the catalyst is found by drawing a more effective vision of the concept and is the key, particularly if the IP aspires to attract and appeal to Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia.

Rising Seas and Retreating Coasts: Implications for the Arctic

Abstract This article addresses both the physical impacts and international legal issues arising from two interlinked stressors on Arctic coastlines: sea level rise and coastal erosion. Key aspects of the legal regime governing the baselines from which coastal States calculate the outer limits of their maritime zones are reviewed and a synopsis of the practice among the Arctic littoral States is provided. The article then turns to a discussion of the practical and international legal responses available to deal with the present and future challenge of rising seas and retreating coasts. The concluding section offers with some reflections on the way forward for a region experiencing some of the most devastating impacts of climate change.

A New Maritime Security Architecture for the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: The South China Sea and the Persian Gulf

China and Iran have the ancient gate of Maritime Silk Road, as well as two new superhighways within this road, namely Strait of Hormuz and Malacca Strait. Unlike the Strait of Hormuz, maritime security in the Malacca Strait needs to be redesigned and re-established by littoral states for the safe corridor. The aim of this study is to find out the new concept and classification of maritime security, namely direct and indirect insecurity elements. This study illustrates that the most remarkable direct and indirect elements are respectively piracy, armed robbery, and external state presence. It is acknowledged that the continuous and dangerous presence of an external state is the indirect insecurity element. In the light of the USA's violation and destabilizing activities in the Persian Gulf and the South China Sea, its presence and passage are considered as noninnocent activities, as these are prejudicial to the good order, peace and security of states located along the coast. Therefore, a new doctrine called the Doctrine of No Sheriff is offered in this article to possibly prevent the uprising of hegemonies in every region in the future.

Estimation of plastic waste inputs from land into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman: An environmental disaster, scientific and social concerns

It has been reported that, the huge amount of plastic waste is present in marine environments. This study evaluated solid waste generation, management, disposal approaches, and the amount of plastic waste entered into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2016. The findings showed that waste in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman regions has been mismanaged by 65% and 81%, respectively. According to our estimates, about 1634.9 k-tons (Kt) and 204.6 Kt of plastic waste have been, respectively, generated by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states in 2016. Most likely, the mass of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2016 was ranged from 155 to 413.4 Kt and 29.2–77.9 Kt, respectively. Without implementation of effective waste management strategies, it is estimated that by 2030, the mass of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf will increase to 199.4–531.6 Kt, while in the Gulf of Oman it would be about 40.4–107.7 Kt. The entry of plastic waste into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman has been expected to increase by 29% and 38% in 2030, respectively. As a result, the related cumulative environmental and health effects can be more intensive. It can be emphasized that all countries located in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman need to modify their solid waste management, plastic waste in particular, policies to conserve sensitive marine ecosystems.

Perspectives on The Soviet Union and the Horn of Africa during the Cold War

Perspectives on <i>The Soviet Union and the Horn of Africa during the Cold War</i>

Integrated maritime picture for effective domain awareness

According to the IMO (International Maritime Organization) MDA (Maritime Domain Awareness) is defined as “Effective understanding of anything associated with the maritime domain that could impact the security, safety, economy, or environment”. As per the geography, more than half of the countries in the world map are littoral states. Hence, Maritime Domain Awareness is a great concern of many states, as described by Bateman in his writing “Solving the “Wicked Problems” of Maritime Security”. However, incidents that are reported in maritime environments are evidence that the security and safety of the maritime environment are causing serious influence on the national security of states. Hence, maritime security has become a great concern of littoral and non-littoral nations, and action has been taken to have effective maritime domain awareness.&#x0D; Even though the maritime environment is far from human occupation, each and every bit of ocean environment is monitoring by many agencies for their own interests. This was proven in the incident of Malaysian airliner MH370, showing the intensity of monitoring of the maritime environment and the international air space. However, in contradiction, exploitation of the sea for illegal activities are also increasing day by day, and drug trafficking, human smuggling, and human trafficking are some of the top listed criminal activities taking place in the maritime environment. Even though the capability is such to monitor the ocean mass effectively, sea routes have become the main supply routes of drugs and narcotics. The real cause for this situation is poor coordination among national and international organizations for information sharing on maritime picture. In the absence of such mechanisms, monitoring stations operate independently to obtain what they are interested in and, as a result, none of them obtain a complete picture of the domain. Using this background, this paper discusses an effective mechanism to integrate monitoring mechanisms for a complete maritime picture.

The Competition of Major Powers for the Caspian Energy Resources

This article analyzes the competition among major, regional as well as littoral states. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of salty water in the world without having a natural connection to the open sea or any ocean. Moreover, it possesses immense hydrocarbon reserves in the subsoil. The geopolitical location of the Caspian Region is also essential for the Silk Road connecting Europe and Central Asia. So, due to its geopolitical position, availability of vast reserves of energy is an object of acute rivalry from both regional and non-regional powers. Competitions among major powers and conflictual claims of littoral states over its resources have influences on state strategies, programs, foreign policy concepts related to the region.

Muslims' Share of the Waves: Law, War and Tradition

The Muslim jurists opted for a balanced, equitable approach in water resources, particularly the oceans, held and taken care of as a collective, shared, and common asset. They devoted several writings on the humane conduct of hostilities, safety of civilians, seaworthiness of ships and shipwrecks with the help of original sources of Islam and the commandments of Muslim governors. Their principles and practices had remarkably contributed to the law of the sea much before the development of the modern Western international law concerning the oceans. Numerous military expeditions undertaken by Muslims for naval warfare in the Mediterranean Sea (MS) and the Indian Ocean (IO) inspired intellectual engagement of these jurists vis-à-vis port cities and maritime trade routes. The coastal settings even caused differences in opinions among popular schools of thought in Islam. This paper discusses such events in history and outlines issues and principles that emphasized the utility of oceans and shaped the conceptual debate on freedom of navigation in the Muslim world. It tends to suggest that international bodies recognize the customary practices of Muslim littoral states to further refine and develop the modern law of the seas. It recommends that the Muslim countries should develop and promote comprehensive codes in accordance with the maritime principles and practices developed by early Muslim jurists for sustainable exploitation of the marine resources without discrimination.

Navigational Hazards in International Maritime Chokepoints: A Study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are two of the world’s most significant international maritime chokepoints. The number of ships transiting the Straits of Malacca and Singapore has increased gradually and significantly over the period of 10 years since 2000. This scenario has enhanced the likelihood of the occurrence of maritime accidents in these Straits. This is further aggravated by the fact that the Straits themselves have many navigational hazards which may make navigation difficult. The navigational hazards in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore that could potentially endanger mariners and the adverse environmental impacts arising from a maritime accident are discussed in this paper. The remedies available to the littoral States of Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore under the International law are identified for enhancing safe navigation. As an important shipping way for oil transportation, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore have to remain open for international shipping as the closure of the Straits would be detrimental to the global economy.

Common Legislation Regarding Discharge of Sewage and Ballast Water by Ships in the Caspian Basin

The Caspian basin for a long time did not have a legal status, so the question of the division of the seabed was in question. In addition, international conventions such as MARPOL, UNCLOS, BWM did not have jurisdiction over Caspian waters. Due to the lack of general rules regarding the Caspian basin, the risk of pollution from ballast water and sewage discharges remains relevant due to the active shipping industry. But on August 12, 2018, the leaders of littoral states signed the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea, although the situation remains complicated. Thus, in the manuscript the authors provide the first insight into the issues of sewage and ballast water in the Caspian, and the role of oil and natural gas in the regional development.

INDONESIA - MALAYSIA DISPUTE OVER MARITIME BOUNDARIES IN THE NORTHERN REGION OF THE MALACCA STRAITS: IMPLICATION TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT REGIME

The economic importance of the Malacca Straits is premised not only on its function as one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world but also its location as an important traditional fishing ground.Straddling between the two adjacent littoral States, Indonesia and Malaysia share the importances in terms of political, socio and economic development and growth. Hence, the control over the Straits through the acquisition of maritime territory is imperative. Despite both Indonesia and Malaysia have concluded a series of bilateral agreements on territorial sea and continental shelf boundaries in the Malacca Straits, both countries are currently involved in the dispute over overlapping claims of exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the northern region of the Straits. As the delineation of EEZ boundary lines is yet to be finalized, this situation has created uncertainty regarding the status of national fisheries jurisdiction in the contested waters. Consequently, undermining efforts towards promoting sustainable and responsible fisheries management and practices. Between the two countries are arose incidents involving detention of local fishermen and confiscation of boats for illegal fishing in the disputed areas have been widely reported in Indonesia as well as Malaysia. Objective: The objective of this paper is to examine the implications and management issues on fisheries in the northern region of the Malacca Straits. It will particularly focus on the impacts of this unresolved dispute to fisheries law enforcement and sustainable management of shared fish stocks. Such impacts has not only undermined management efforts to ensure sustainable and responsible fisheries in the contested areas but also posed threat the safety and security of fishermen at seas. Methodology: This paper employed the qualitative methode and critical content analys is used in this study. The legal consequences of ratifying the United Nations Convention on The Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS 1982) with Law No. 17 of 1985 concerning the ratification of UNCLOS, Law No. 45/ 2009 amending Law No. 31/ 2004 concerning Indonesian fishery are the substance of law regulation to identifying, collecting, and assessing both primary and secondary data. These research data are obtained from a wide range of published and unpublished materials, including internet resources. The main data collection technique is through library research. Primary data are sourced from international treaty instruments, legislations, and court cases, while sources of secondary data are derived from journal articles, books, book chapters, and newspaper cuttings. Results: Due to unresolved dispute on EEZ in the northern region of the Malacca Straits, both countries are facing the illegal fishing problems although Indonesia and Malaysia have engaged in a series of diplomatic negotiation. This ongoing impasse subsequently posed a number of socio-economic and security problems. As a result, the incidents of illegal fishing in the disputed waters have been frequent and reported in Indonesia and Malaysia media thus create the problem to establish and efective cooperation in maritime surveillance and enforcement to fisheries management regime. To ensure sustainable and long-term viability of marine fisheries sector in the northern region of the Malacca Straits, both countries are aware the cooperative approach is needed from time to time. Implication: This paper highlights the necessity for both Indonesia and Malaysia to resolve their EEZ boundary dispute in the Straits peacefully. Failure to do so would arguably instigate adverse implications on promoting sustainable and responsible marine fisheries management and law enforcement, as well as bilateral relationships.

Military and political aspects of cooperation of Caspian states as the main guaranteed of ensuring regional security

Caspian region has always been a point of intersection of interests for multiple states. Throughout all historical periods, the presence of influential states in the Caspian Sea coast led to escalation of tension in the region. Such factors as heterogenic population of littoral states and differences in mentality further aggravated the situation. Thus, the military-political activity of the Caspian states has always been of paramount importance. The significance of military-political activity for the countries of Caspian Basin was substantiated by the following key factors: concentration of the majority of explored hydrocarbon deposits of these countries on its continental shelf; presence of substantial reserves of various biological resources in the waters of Caspian Sea; location of the region on the junction of important geopolitical paths; largely populated coastal regions. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and formation of new states in the region, this activity acquired a special character.

Contribution of the researchers of the Department of Ichthyology and Hydrobiology of Saint-Petersburg State University to the conservation of the Caspian sturgeon population

The paper deals with the main historical moments of the Caspian sturgeon population dynamics and the formation of their stocks. The participation of researchers of the Department of Ichthyology and Hydrobiology of Saint-Petersburg State University in creating the concept of sturgeon conservation in the Caspian Sea and the specialized institute of sturgeon farming in Astrakhan was highly appreciated. The materials on the contribution of the Department’s researchers to the study of the physiological state of sturgeon producers, improving their quality, survival and safety in the conditions of artificial breeding of these species are presented. The data on the reduction of the sturgeon abundance reared and released into the Caspian Sea by the Caspian littoral states are presented. A description of the current state of the sturgeon of the Caspian basin is given. The data on changes in stocks, the structure of the spawning part of the population and reproduction of the beluga, Russian sturgeon and stellate sturgeon in the Volga-Caspian basin under the conditions of the prohibition of their commercial fishing are analyzed. It was shown that during the years of the ban, the abundance and stocks of sturgeon and biological indicators of breeding migrants to spawn in the Volga continued to decrease and the proportion of females among them, which is associated with the illegal catch of sturgeon, comparable in scale to the commercial fishery before the ban was introduced. Reduced natural (up to its complete cessation in the Beluga) and artificial reproduction of sturgeons are stated. Only observing the moratorium on sturgeon fishing in all the Caspian littoral states, strengthening the protection of fish at feeding grounds and spawning migrations can preserve and restore their unique Caspian populations.

Current Developments of Legal Instruments to Prevent and Control of Pollution In The Straits of Malacca

The Strait of Malacca is one of the busiest straits in the world, with more than 60,000 vessels through the strait per year. This strait is located in a strategic location to connect the west part and east part of the world. However, the number of vessels transit and pass through the strait affects marine environmental issues. Pollution, especially vessel-based sources, may affect marine life. To settle the issues along with the boundary issue, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore have entered into some agreements to cooperate to manage the Strait of Malacca since the 1970s. Recently, the concept of Cooperative Mechanism has been developed. Several meetings amongst these states have been done with some positive deals. With this concept, the littoral states believe that it can prevent, reduce, and control of marine pollution in the Strait of Malacca. However, more progress is still needed to enhance from the implementation of the Cooperative Mechanism. Keywords: Strait of Malacca, Pollution, Marine, Environment, Cooperative Mechanism.