Nest Litter Research Articles

Nestling Altricial Rodents and Lagomorphs Are Not Ectotherms.

AbstractBased on the synthesis of data on metabolic rates of 15 species investigated at moderate ambient temperatures, nestlings of most studied species of altricial rodents and lagomorphs exhibit thermoregulatory control of thermogenesis within 3 d after birth, signifying that they express physiological thermoregulation for 86%-100% of their time as nestlings. Classifying nestlings as ectotherms (or poikilotherms) is thus inappropriate and fosters misconceptions regarding their body temperatures (Tb's), control of Tb-sensitive functions (e.g., cardiac output), and energetics of development. The fact that nestlings live as litters in nests means that their thermoregulatory capacities in their actual, natural lives often far exceed the capacities they exhibit as isolated individuals-pointing to a pressing need for improved understanding of the physiology of litters. Litters in nests are already known in two cases to exhibit true homeothermy at ages when individuals studied in isolation express only modest thermoregulatory abilities. Golden (Syrian) hamster nestlings are exceptional, requiring 2 wk to develop thermoregulatory thermogenesis. They are properly considered ectotherms at up to 2 wk of age, helping to clarify that most species-being dramatically different-are not.

Winter reproduction of Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) in the orange groves of Sagunto (Valencia, Spain) / La reproduction en hiver d' Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) dans les orangeraies de Sagunto (Valence, Espagne)

AbstractThe colonisation of orange groves in Eastern Spain by the garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus and their reproduction were studied. Litter sizes and times of birth of garden dormice were studied during the winter of 2003/2004 until the month of May 2004. The main study area was a plot covered by orange trees that has been monitored since 1975. Litters in nest boxes placed around the plot for birds, as well as a few litters in nests built in trees, were observed to obtain information on reproduction. The nests found in trees include some built in old bird nests, most of them belonging to the blackbird Turdus merula . We weighed the cubs to determine their month of birth and identified the population trend by counting the number of nests occupied simultaneously. Results show that there are births during the winter, that the number of cubs per nest ranged from 4 to 13, but 6 cubs was the mode. A total of 34 litters were found, with an average size of 5.76 cubs per litter. The litter of 13 cubs was excluded from analysis. Colonisation was suspected after a first specimen was observed in 1997 in the surroundings of the study area. Occupation by garden dormice of both natural nests and nest boxes subsequently increased from 1 to 27 between 1999 and 2004. We suggest that mild winter temperatures allowed the population increase and winter reproduction.

Winter reproduction of Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) in the orange groves of Sagunto (Valencia, Spain) / La reproduction en hiver d' Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) dans les orangeraies de Sagunto (Valence, Espagne)

AbstractThe colonisation of orange groves in Eastern Spain by the garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus and their reproduction were studied. Litter sizes and times of birth of garden dormice were studied during the winter of 2003/2004 until the month of May 2004. The main study area was a plot covered by orange trees that has been monitored since 1975. Litters in nest boxes placed around the plot for birds, as well as a few litters in nests built in trees, were observed to obtain information on reproduction. The nests found in trees include some built in old bird nests, most of them belonging to the blackbird Turdus merula . We weighed the cubs to determine their month of birth and identified the population trend by counting the number of nests occupied simultaneously. Results show that there are births during the winter, that the number of cubs per nest ranged from 4 to 13, but 6 cubs was the mode. A total of 34 litters were found, with an average size of 5.76 cubs per litter. The litter of 13 cubs was excluded from analysis. Colonisation was suspected after a first specimen was observed in 1997 in the surroundings of the study area. Occupation by garden dormice of both natural nests and nest boxes subsequently increased from 1 to 27 between 1999 and 2004. We suggest that mild winter temperatures allowed the population increase and winter reproduction.

Behaviour and performance of sows in farrowing nests

The behavioural response of sows and gilts accommodated in groups of up to 6, in two rooms of farrowing nests was observed at the West Sussex College of Agriculture and Horticulture. A split-plot experiment was carried out at three levels: ( 1 ) room (north/south); (2) season (winter/summer); (3) week of sow occupancy (before and 1, 2 and 3 weeks after parturition ). The sows were grouped according to normal commercial practice with farrowing dates matched as closely as possible. Inevitably sows farrowed in both Weeks 0 and 1. No attempt was made to balance animals for age or behavioural profile. Observations for sow position, posture and activity were recorded every 10 min over 53 4-h periods. Additional data collected included time sows spent out of nests and frequency of feeder visits. Sow performance was assessed from litter data for all sows farrowing in both the nests and a crate system between 1 August and 31 December. (Number of litters= 110. ) The most frequently observed position, posture and activity of the sow was in the nests ( 76% of observations), lying down (67%) and inactive (70%), respectively. Week of sow occupancy had a significant effect on the number of feeder visits made by sows (P < 0.05 ) with more feeder visits being made during the second week. In the north room sows spent a greater proportion of their time in the nests during the winter (95 vs. 64%) but this was not repeated in the south room. There was no difference between nests and crates in number born alive or in number weaned. Survival rate for August was higher for the litters in nests, but there were no differences observed in other months.

Examination of Poultry Litter for Salmonellae by Direct Culture and Fluorescent Antibody Technique

Direct culture and fluorescent antibody (FA) procedures were used for examining approximately 6200 samples of poultry floor or nest litter for salmonellae. Each sample was cultured directly in tetrathionate brilliant-green (TBG) broth, incubated at 42 C for 48 hours, and plated on brilliant green (BG) agar. The FA procedure was conducted from pools of 4-8 samples prepared by transferring 1 ml supernatant from TBG at 24 hr into 50 ml of either gram-negative (GN) broth, selenite cystine, or selenite brilliant-green sulfapyridine. After 6 hr of incubation at 42 C, BG agar plates were streaked from each pool, and smears were prepared for FA. Salmonella was isolated by plating from 268 of 854 pooled units. Recovery was 97% by direct culture, 86% from GN broth, and 57% from the selenite secondary enrichments. In the FA procedure, GN broth was superior to either of the selenites as the secondary medium from which to prepare smears, giving more FA-positive pools, a higher percentage of confirmed positives, and a lower percentage of false negative pools. FA examination of litter samples can be expedited by using sample pools. A major deficiency of the FA technique was the high percentage of false-positive reactions as judged by inability to isolate salmonellae. From litter cultured directly in TBG, salmonellae were isolated from 97% of the total number of pools culturally positive by combined culture methods.

Preserving eggs

All methods of egg preservation aim to prevent the entry and growth of spoilage or pathogenic micro‐organisms which would make the egg unpalatable or dangerous to health. Although the contents of chickens' eggs are sterile on laying, the shell surface may be contaminated with many micro‐organisms — on average there may be 130,000 bacteria on the shell of an egg. Most of these organisms, which come from the nest litter or the bird's excreta, will spoil the egg but are not harmful to health, for example Pseudomonas fluorescens which causes ‘green rot’ and off‐odours if allowed to penetrate the egg and grow. Some of the contaminating organisms may be pathogenic, food‐poisoning bacteria such as Salmonella species, which are sometimes present in chicken droppings, but pathogens are very rare in chickens' eggs. Similar salmonellae have been implicated in numerous food‐poisoning outbreaks associated with duck eggs, as the aquatic environment of the duck encourages their growth and on no account should duck eggs be preserved.