Litter Volume Research Articles

Microhabitat preference constrains invasive spread of non-native natal grass (Melinis repens)

Preventing the establishment of a non-native species is critical for ensuring the species does not become invasive, yet most non-native species will have little impact on their environment. Despite this, little is known about what influences whether a species will remain relatively benign, or whether it will cause economic or ecological harm. Understanding a plant’s microhabitat provides insight into the necessary conditions for establishment and the current distribution limitations of a population. We investigated microhabitat preference of the non-native natal grass (Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka) in Florida scrub using microhabitat sampling to measure vegetation composition. We examined the extent to which microhabitats were associated with natal grass presence and biomass in invaded disturbed scrub and roadside plots using backwards stepwise logistic regression and general linear models to identify significant microhabitat variables. We further compared these plots with those in undisturbed, uninvaded scrub to characterize vegetation across habitat types, and used our model to predict the probability of natal grass invasion in undisturbed scrub. Natal grass preferred microhabitats with high litter volume and distance to shrubs and intermediate cactus, graminoid, and vine cover. Roadside natal grass achieved higher biomass and was less microhabitat limited than disturbed scrub natal grass. We determined that undisturbed scrub plots represent distinct microhabitats that natal grass is unlikely to invade. Microhabitat sampling provides land-managers a non-intrusive technique to assess potential habitat suitability based non-native plant preferences before a costly invasion occurs.

Influence of fallen coarse woody debris on the diversity and community structure of forest-floor spiders (Arachnida: Araneae)

Purely observational studies have documented differences in the abundance and diversity of several litter-dwelling arthropods between sites adjacent to, and far from, CWD, which suggests that reduction of fallen coarse woody debris (CWD) in temperate forests by traditional forestry practices may affect the litter arthropod community. As few field experiments have directly tested the impact of CWD on arthropods inhabiting the litter at different distances from CWD, we removed CWD from replicated open plots on the floor of a second-growth deciduous forest in order to reveal the causal connection between CWD and litter-dwelling spiders, often the most diverse and abundant predators among the litter macrofauna of temperate forests. We also documented the impact of the CWD manipulation on spider prey and several other major macroarthropod groups. Before removing CWD (∅ = 14.3 ± 0.7 cm), we measured response variables as a function of distance (0.5–1.5 m) from CWD in both removal and control plots. In agreement with results of previous research that solely utilized this observational approach in temperate forests, volume and dry mass of litter, spider diversity, overall spider density, and densities of 8 of 16 major spider genera were higher adjacent to CWD before experimental manipulations. Removing CWD reduced the amount of litter and the density of spiders in litter close to where the CWD had been. Removing CWD also altered spider community structure, which had differed between litter sites adjacent to, and far from, CWD prior to the experimental removal of CWD. The patterns, though, were not completely congruent, as some of the taxa affected by the manipulation had not differed between sites prior to the removal of CWD, and vice-versa. Our findings suggest that complex interactions among structural, biotic and microclimatic factors underlie the observed responses to CWD removal by spiders and other arthropods in the litter layer. We also conclude that drawing inferences solely from observational studies is not a reliable approach for predicting the impact of changes in the amount of CWD on arthropods of forest-floor leaf litter. Further field experiments manipulating different volumes of CWD are needed in order to determine the minimum amount of CWD that should be kept on the forest floor of managed forests in order to maintain densities and diversities of major leaf-litter arthropods.

Mesofauna do solo em diferentes sistemas de uso da terra no Alto Rio Solimões, AM

The mesofauna has an important function in the soil and it is represented mainly by Acari Oribatida and Collembola. We report the first data on the density and diversity of the soil mesofauna in Benjamin Constant, Amazonas State, Brazil. The following systems were evaluated: primary forest, secondary forest, agroforestry system, cultivated areas and pastures. A total of 101 samples were collected 100 m apart from each other and specimens were collected by using Berlese-Tullgren method. The highest density was registered in secondary forest (29,776 specimens.m-2). Acari Oribatida was the dominant group (7.072 specimens.m-2) in the pasture, suggesting that mites show higher capacity of adaptation to disturbed environments and/or due to the presence of gregarious species. The density of Collembola (5,632 specimens.m-2) was higher in secondary forest. Formicidae was the dominant group (27,824 specimens.m-2) and its highest density occurred in the secondary forest (12,336 specimens.m-2). Seven species and ten morphospecies of Isoptera and three species of Symphyla were identified. The highest density and diversity were found in secondary forest. One supposes that the low density of mesofauna found in all of the studied systems is being influenced by soil structure and composition as well as litter volume. For SUT, the composition of taxonomic groups in the cultivated areas is similar to the one found in primary forest, while the groups found in the agroforestry system are similar to those in the pasture, which may help to decide on land use strategies.

Efficiency in inventories of ants in a forest reservein Central Amazonia

The objective of this work was to evaluate an inventory method efficiency for ants. We used subsamples collected in 24 transects of 100 m, distributed in 6 plots of 600 ha each in primary forest, as part of a long-term project. Ten litter subsamples were extracted per transect using Winkler extractors. Ants were identified to genus level, and Crematogaster, Gnamptogenys and Pachycondyla genera to species/morphospecies level. To evaluate the consequences of reduced sampling on the retention of ecological information, we estimated the lowest number of subsamples needed to detect the effects of environmental variables. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to generate dissimilarity matrices, and Mantel correlations between each reduced-sampling effort and maximum effort were used as an index of how much information was maintained and could still be used in multivariate analyses. Lower p-values was observed on the effect of soil pH in the community of genera, and on the effect of the litter volume for the community of Crematogaster. The trend was still detectable in the analysis based on reduced-sampling. The number of subsamples can be reduced, and the cost-efficiency of the protocol can be improved with little loss of information.

Earthworm Invasion as the Driving Force Behind Plant Invasion and Community Change in Northeastern North American Forests

Identification of factors that drive changes in plant community structure and contribute to decline and endangerment of native plant species is essential to the development of appropriate management strategies. Introduced species are assumed to be driving causes of shifts in native plant communities, but unequivocal evidence supporting this view is frequently lacking. We measured native vegetation, non-native earthworm biomass, and leaf-litter volume in 15 forests in the presence and absence of 3 non-native plant species (Microstegium vimineum, Alliaria petiolata, Berberis thunbergii) to assess the general impact of non-native plant and earthworm invasions on native plant communities in northeastern United States. Non-native plant cover was positively correlated with total native plant cover and non-native earthworm biomass. Earthworm biomass was negatively associated with cover of native woody and most herbaceous plants and with litter volume. Graminoid cover was positively associated with non-native earthworm biomass and non-native plant cover. These earthworm-associated responses were detected at all sites despite differences in earthworm species and abundance, composition of the native plant community, identity of invasive plant species, and geographic region. These patterns suggest earthworm invasion, rather than non-native plant invasion, is the driving force behind changes in forest plant communities in northeastern North America, including declines in native plant species, and earthworm invasions appear to facilitate plant invasions in these forests. Thus, a focus on management of invasive plant species may be insufficient to protect northeastern forest understory species.

Declines in Woodland Salamander Abundance Associated with Non‐Native Earthworm and Plant Invasions

Factors that negatively affect the quality of wildlife habitat are a major concern for conservation. Non-native species invasions, in particular, are perceived as a global threat to the quality of wildlife habitat. Recent evidence indicates that some changes to understory plant communities in northern temperate forests of North America, including invasions by 3 non-native plant species, are facilitated by non-native earthworm invasion. Furthermore, non-native earthworm invasions cause a reduction in leaf litter on the forest floor, and the loss of forest leaf litter is commonly associated with declines in forest fauna, including amphibians. We conducted a mark-recapture study of woodland salamander abundance across plant invasion fronts at 10 sites to determine whether earthworm or plant invasions were associated with reduced salamander abundance. Salamander abundance declined exponentially with decreasing leaf litter volume. There was no significant relationship between invasive plant cover and salamander abundance, independent of the effects of leaf litter loss due to earthworm invasion. An analysis of selected salamander prey abundance (excluding earthworms) at 4 sites showed that prey abundance declined with declining leaf litter. The loss of leaf litter layers due to non-native earthworm invasions appears to be negatively affecting woodland salamander abundance, in part, because of declines in the abundance of small arthropods that are a stable resource for salamanders. Our results demonstrate that earthworm invasions pose a significant threat to woodland amphibian fauna in the northeastern United States, and that plant invasions are symptomatic of degraded amphibian habitat but are not necessarily drivers of habitat degradation.

Prospects for phosphorus recovery from poultry litter

Land disposal of poultry litter is an environmental concern often associated to excess phosphorus (P) in soils and potential water pollution in regions with intense poultry production. Although poultry litter can be moved off the farm and traded as fertilizer, its transportation becomes less economical with increasing distances from the farm. Thus, new litter management alternatives are needed to reduce the environmental impact of P litter application to land. This paper summarizes established and emerging alternative technologies in the U.S. that facilitate handling, concentration, and transporting of litter P. Furthermore, it examines the potential integration of technologies into poultry litter management systems that could reduce poultry litter volume and increase P content in litter byproducts. The adoption of alternative technologies may encourage new opportunities to produce bio-energy, fertilizer, and other valuable P byproducts from poultry litter while reducing environmental impact and promoting sustainable poultry production.

Variação sazonal na riqueza e na abundância de pequenos mamíferos, na estrutura da floresta e na disponibilidade de artrópodes em fragmentos florestais no Mato Grosso, Brasil

Nós capturamos pequenos mamíferos em oito fragmentos florestais (43 a 1.411 ha) nos períodos seco e chuvoso, no sudoeste de Mato Grosso, Brasil, e investigamos a variação na riqueza e na abundância de pequenos mamíferos e em variáveis relacionadas à estrutura da floresta (volume da liteira e abertura do dossel) e à disponibilidade de artrópodes, entre os dois períodos do ano. As amostragens foram realizadas durante o período chuvoso entre 2002 e 2003 e durante período seco de 2003. Em cada fragmento, foram utilizadas armadilhas Sherman, Tomahawk, Snap trap e Pitfall durante 10 dias consecutivos em cada época do ano, totalizando 17.600 armadilhas x noites. Foram obtidas no total 379 capturas de 20 espécies, sendo sete de marsupiais e 13 de roedores, com sucesso de captura de 2,2% (1,6% para o período chuvoso e 2,7% para o período seco). Não houve diferenças significativas na riqueza total, riqueza de roedores, riqueza de marsupiais, abundância total e abundância de roedores entre os períodos seco e chuvoso. Já a abundância de marsupiais foi significativamente maior na época da seca, quando a quantidade de chuvas é menor. O volume da liteira foi significativamente maior durante a seca, enquanto a disponibilidade de artrópodes foi significativamente maior durante o período chuvoso. Sendo assim, a grande disponibilidade de alimento no ambiente durante a estação chuvosa pode ter tornado as iscas das armadilhas menos atrativas. De maneira geral, as variações entre períodos seco e chuvoso observados estão de acordo com padrões descritos em outros estudos.

Collembola population levels 7 years after installation of the North Carolina Long Term Soil Productivity Study

Collembola are among the most abundant microarthropods in terrestrial ecosystems and have been shown to affect litter decomposition and nutrient release rates. Previous work on the Croatan National Forest Long Term Soil Productivity (LTSP) study indicated organic matter removal and vegetation control treatments affected collembolan populations. The present study isolated important factors within these treatments and determined if differences in collembolan populations by treatment persisted over time. Collembolans were extracted from litter and enumerated on both a per area and volume basis for 1 year. Litter volume, quality, and nutrient concentration, in addition to treatment effects of organic matter removal, soil compaction and vegetation control were tested against numbers of Collembola. Organic matter removal and vegetation control treatments had a significant negative effect on populations during the late spring, summer, and early fall months, whereas compaction had no significant effect. Physical litter characteristics, nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon to nitrogen ratio were consistently significantly correlated to collembolan populations. Results indicate removal of the fermentation and humus (F, H) layers not only decrease the volume of living space but also make Collembola more susceptible to dry periods, and this effect continues even after reestablishment of the forest floor litter.

Characteristics of litter waste in highway storm runoff

Litter characterization is an integrated part of the Caltrans First Flush Characterization Study. These data will provide a basis to develop potential treatment technologies and best management practices to control pollutants in runoff from freeways. During monitoring periods in Southern California areas, the first flush phenomenon was evaluated and the impacts of various parameters such as rain intensity, drainage area, peak flow rate, and antecedent dry period on litter volume and loading rates were evaluated. First flush phenomenon was generally observed for litter concentrations, but was not apparent with litter mass loading rates. Total captured gross pollutants, defined as larger than 0.5 cm, was 90% vegetation with only 10% being litter. The normalized cumulative litter loadings were determined from 1.25 to 13.39 kg/ha for dry litter weight and 0.40 to 8.99 kg/ha for dry biodegradable litter weight. The portions of biodegradable litter to non-biodegradable litter were roughly the same across the entire event. Event mean concentrations were ranged 0.0021 to 0.259 g/L for wet gross pollutants, 0.0001 to 0.027 g/L for wet litters and 0.00007 to 0.018 g/L for dry litters. The mass emission rates should be useful to estimate total litter production for developing total maximum daily loads.

Use of natural zeolite-supplemented litter increased broiler production

The aim of this study was to ascertain the influence of natural zeolite, consisting mainly of clinoptilolite and mordenite, as a component of the litter material in broiler houses on the performance of the broilers and on some litter characteristics. Live weight gain, feed consumption, feed efficiency, viability and leg and body abnormalities of broilers, and litter moisture content were measured during a six-week experimental period. A broiler house was divided into 12 sections using 1 m high duralite partitions that prevented air exchange between sections and stocked with 15 birds/m2. Natural zeolite was added to wood shavings at levels of 0% (control), 25%, 50% and 75% of total litter volume. Litter thickness was 5 cm in all groups. The addition of zeolite at all levels improved broiler performance significantly above the control. At the end of the six-week trial zeolite did not affect feed consumption significantly, (g), 3547, 3381, 3472 and 3421, but resulted in higher live weights of the broilers of from 1935 g in the control to 1970, 1996 and 1978 g for the respective zeolite treatments. Consequently, feed efficiency improved significantly from 1.83 g feed/g gain in the control to 1.71, 1.74 and 1.73 g feed/g gain in the respective zeolite treatments. No differences between treatments were recorded in vitality or in leg and body abnormalities in the chickens. Litter moisture content decreased from 36.2% in the control to 25.2, 23.6 and 21.8% in the respective zeolite treated litter. It is concluded that the inclusion of zeolitic material to litter positively affected broiler performance, poultry house conditions and litter moisture content. An inclusion rate of up to 25% zeolite is recommended in litter consisting of wood shavings. Keywords : Clinoptilolite; mordenite; litter; broiler performance South African Journal of Animal Sciences Vol. 35 (2) 2005: pp.90-97

Relationship of water and leaf litter variability to insects inhabiting treeholes

I surveyed treeholes in central Pennsylvania for 7 mo in 1995 to investigate relationships among insect communities and water and leaf litter resources. I used water volume, essential to growth of treehole larvae, as an indicator of habitat size. Leaf litter is the basal food resource in treehole communities, and litter volume is related to the amount of energy available. Insect species richness and larval mosquito (Ochlerotatus triseriatus) and ceratopogonid midge (Culicoides guttipennis) densities were higher in treeholes that maintained high water volumes than those with low volumes throughout the study. Treeholes with high litter volume, irrespective of water volume, had the highest densities of C. guttipennis, and higher total larval densities than those with lower litter volumes; however, litter volume did not affect insect species richness. Scirtid beetle larvae were common in all treeholes, although their densities were unaffected by both litter and water volume. Insect species richness was not related to litter volume, unlike some other studies of phytotelmata. However, my study supported earlier conclusions that both habitat size and resource availability influence structure of treehole communities and maintain species populations. The influence of each resource on particular species presence and density may be related to physical aspects of treeholes, biotic interactions, and natural history of individual species.

Soil Water in Amended Landscape Soils

This study determined the effect of soil amendments on plant available water (PAW) and readily available water (RAW). Intact soil cores were collected from a Cecil sandy clay loam soil landscape planting beds that had been amended annually for 5 years with 5 cm (25% by volume) of pine bark and broiler litter. Soil cores were also collected from a landscape bed that had been amended once in April 2000 with 5 cm (25% by volume) of Permatill (expanded slate). The results of this study indicated that amending soil with pine bark or broiler litter compost increased soil porosity, drainage, aeration and PAW. The volumetric RAW (cm3·cm-3) did not differ among treatments, but amending the soil with pine bark or broiler litter did increase the gravimetric RAW (g·g-1). Permatill increased drainage and aeration, but did not increase available water to plants.

Comunidades de aranhas (Araneae) em cultivos de seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) no Estado de São Paulo

The spider fauna composition of three rubber tree commercial plantations in the Northwest part of Sao Paulo State, Brazil, was characterized for both canopy and litter strata. On seven occasions from April 2000 to October 2001, samples were taken by beating sheet and hand capture, resulting in a total of 946 individuals, belonging to 24 families and 119 species. The most common species were Italaman santamaria Brescovit, 1997 and Teudis sp. (Anyphaenidae), Castianeira sp. and Falconina aff. gracilis (Corinnidae), Paracleocnemis sp. (Philodromidae), Ibotyporanga naideae Mello-Leitao, 1944 (Pholcidae), Chira spinipes (Taczanowiski, 1871) and Rudra sp. (Salticidae), Achaearanea hirta (Taczanowiski, 1873) and Coleosoma floridanum (Banks, 1900) (Theridiidae) and Goeldia sp. (Titanoecidae). Anyphaenidae, Theridiidae and Salticidae were the most abundant families in the canopy, while Pholcidae and Corinnidae in the litter. Spider abundance was found to be, in general, positively correlated to the litter volume and density of branches in the trees. The use of acaricides and insecticides for one plantation resulted in a decrease in spider abundance for both strata. Abundance values among the samples suggest that the canopy spider abundance decreases with the loss of leaves in the dry season. Simultaneously, litter spider abundance increased in this season, because of the increase in litter volume. The most active canopy spiders, like runners and stalkers, should be investigated for their potential as pest control agents.

Relative effects of litter and management on grassland bird abundance in Missouri, USA

Transect bird surveys were conducted at 43 tallgrass prairies in southwestern Missouri, U.S.A. in mid-June each year from 1992 to 1999. Litter volume on and near the ground was estimated on a nine-point scale during 1994 to 1999. The relative importance of management type (rotational burning, rotational haying, or a combination of both) and litter volume on relative abundance was analysed for three declining grassland songbirds: Henslow's Sparrow Ammodramus henslowii, Grasshopper Sparrow A. savannarum, and Dickcissel Spiza americana. Haying resulted in significantly higher abundance than burning for all species except Dickcissel, for which few significant management effects were detected. Henslow's Sparrow increased in abundance from light to heavy litter, Grasshopper Sparrow peaked in low to intermediate litter, and Dickcissel showed little pattern relative to litter. Litter scores recorded in each management type increased with number of years since last treatment. Although litter profoundly affected bird abundance, independent and equally important was whether that litter was obtained via haying or burning. Greater consistency among years in hayed vegetation structure may help explain these birds' preference for haying over burning or haying + burning. Rotational haying should be employed more than burning in the management of these declining birds, especially for the sharply declining, fire-sensitive Henslow's and Grasshopper Sparrows.

Relationships beetween the regional distribution of carabid beetles ( Coleoptera, Carabidae) and the abundance of their potential prey

We studied regional variation in abundance of carabid beetles in relation to both abiotic factors and prey availability in 19 forest sites, with a focus on the relationship between the distributions of the carabid beetle Abax ater Villers and its prey, earthworms. No significant correlation was found between the abundance of Abax ater and any of the abiotic factors considered. On the other had, litter thickness was strongly associated with the composition and structure of the whole carabid community: an increase in litter thickness was accompanied by a decrease in both total carabid abundance and carabid species richnes, and by an increase in the proportion of forest species. The relationship between the regional distributions of abundance of carabid beetles and their potential prev was very different for soil-dwelling and litter-dwelling prey. There was a significant pattern of association between low soil prey abundance and low carabid abundance, which suggests that carabid abundance is partly controlled by prey numbers in the soil. On the other hand, there was a significant pattern of association between high prey density per volume of litter and low Abax ater abundance, thus showing a negative relationship between the abundance of this species and prey density in the litter. We propose two complementary hypotheses to explain this pattern: prey depletion by predation in the litter, and biased sampling of carabids due to differential mobility. The prey depletion hypothesis considers that soil acts as a refuge from predation, so that prey numbers in the soil control carabid abundance, while dominant carabids in turn deplete prey and control their abundance in the litter. This hypothesis suggests a complex relationship between the abundances of carabids and their prey.

Pelleted Newspaper as a Broiler Litter Material

Two 46-day floor pen experiments evaluated low- and high- density pelleted newspaper as a broiler litter material. Experiment 1 compared fresh pine sawdust (FPS) to fresh low-density paper (FLP). Experiment 2 compared FPS, fresh low-density paper containing an adhesive (FLPA), and fresh high-density paper (FHP) with the used sawdust (UPS) and used low-density paper (ULP) from Experiment 1. All fresh paper materials were placed in pens at one-half the depth (3.8 cm) of the FPS (7.6 cm). Litter type (sawdust vs. paper), age (fresh vs. used), and paper density (low vs. high) had no effect on 46-day body weight, feed conversion, or mortality. Litter moisture was similar and caking was absent among treatments in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, the FLPA resulted in increased cake formation. Broilers reared on FHP had the lowest incidence of breast blisters in Experiment 2. Both low-(without adhesive) and high-density pelleted newspaper are suitable broiler litter materials when placed at one-half the sawdust litter volume.

A plot study of forest floor litter frogs, Central Amazon, Brazil

ABSTRACTAbundance and distribution of frogs inhabiting the litter layer of an area of primary lowland rain forest in Central Amazonia were studied over a period of 15 months by sampling 498 plots each 5m × 5m. The litter frog fauna of the area consists of 23 species, but only 12 of these were encountered in the plots, and 84% of the frogs encountered belonged to only six species. Total abundance and diversity within the plot data are strongly seasonal and peak in the late wet season. Both are positively correlated with litter volume and moisture. Most of this variation is due to seasonality of reproduction, as indicated by patterns of occurrence of juveniles of the most abundant species.These results indicate that the plot sampling method docs not sample the entire fauna adequately. Since this technique has been used to study other tropical forest litter herpetofaunas, however, comparison with other studies may be useful. Species diversity of litter frogs appears to be approximately the same in lowland primary forest sites studied, averaging around 20 ‘regular’ species. Abundances, however, vary widely. Central American communities contain 14–15 frogs (100m)-2, African 9–10, South American 4–6, and South-east Asian 1–2. These differences may be due to differential nutrient availability in forests of different ages and/or on different soils.

Estimated Woody Litterfall in Broadleaved, Evergreen Forest, Southern Cape, South Africa

SYNOPSIS A new line-transect technique for monitoring woody litterfall in forests is described. In indigenous, evergreen coastal forest at Harkerville, southern Cape, branches and trees which fell and accumulated across 50 m lengths of twine over a period of seven years, were counted and measured. Small stems (11–50 mm) were the most numerous component of the woody litter, but branches 110–300 mm in diameter contributed more to litter volume. Accumulated woody litterfall for the seven-year period ranged from 0,8 m3/ha to 38,9 m3/ha on different transects. Mean woodfall was estimated to be 1,72 (se 0,15) m3/ha per annum. The implications of woodfall monitoring for firewood gathering under a multipurpose forest management system are discussed.

アルカリー酸素法によるココヤシ殻繊維のパルプ化

Pulping of the coir fibers from the coconut husks was undertaken to see the feasibility to use them as raw materials for soda-oxygen pulping process. In this report, the effect of oxygen on single-and two-stage soda-oxygen pulping processes were mainly investigated.In the single-stage alkaline oxygen pulping, obtained pulp was partially defiberized without beating by cooking with 20% NaOH and Oxygen at pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2 using rotary autoclave of 4 litter volume. However, the pulp was defiberized completely when oxygen increased to 7.0 kg/cm2. Soda pulp without oxygen, which was obtained under the same cooking conditions, was not defiberized. The strength properties of the pulp were higher than those of the soda pulp but lower than those of the kraft pulp. The disadvantage was that pulp yield and brightness value were considerably lower than those of the soda pulp.In the two-stage alkaline oxygen pulping, the fibers were cooked by soda pulping as the first stage, then after the obtained first stage pulp cooked again under mild conditions with 10% NaOH, at 110°C of maximum temperature and under 7.0 kg/cm2 of oxygen. The strength properties of the pulp were similar to those of kraft pulp. The pulp yield was lower than soda pulp but higher than single-stage pulp. The brightness was so improved remarkably as higher than that of soda pulp.