Floor Litter Research Articles

Nitrogen distribution and cycling through water flows in a subtropical bamboo forest under high level of atmospheric deposition.

BackgroundThe hydrological cycle is an important way of transportation and reallocation of reactive nitrogen (N) in forest ecosystems. However, under a high level of atmospheric N deposition, the N distribution and cycling through water flows in forest ecosystems especially in bamboo ecosystems are not well understood.Methodology/Principal FindingsIn order to investigate N fluxes through water flows in a Pleioblastus amarus bamboo forest, event rainfall/snowfall (precipitation, PP), throughfall (TF), stemflow (SF), surface runoff (SR), forest floor leachate (FFL), soil water at the depth of 40 cm (SW1) and 100 cm (SW2) were collected and measured through the whole year of 2009. Nitrogen distribution in different pools in this ecosystem was also measured. Mean N pools in vegetation and soil (0–1 m) were 351.7 and 7752.8 kg ha−1. Open field nitrogen deposition at the study site was 113.8 kg N ha−1 yr−1, which was one of the highest in the world. N-NH4 +, N-NO3 − and dissolved organic N (DON) accounted for 54%, 22% and 24% of total wet N deposition. Net canopy accumulated of N occurred with N-NO3 − and DON but not N-NH4 +. The flux of total dissolved N (TDN) to the forest floor was greater than that in open field precipitation by 17.7 kg N ha−1 yr−1, due to capture of dry and cloudwater deposition net of canopy uptake. There were significant negative exponential relationships between monthly water flow depths and monthly mean TDN concentrations in PP, TF, SR, FFL and SW1.Conclusions/SignificanceThe open field nitrogen deposition through precipitation is very high over the world, which is the main way of reactive N input in this bamboo ecosystem. The water exchange and N consume mainly occurred in the litter floor layer and topsoil layer, where most of fine roots of bamboo distributed.

Susceptibility of 4 commercial broiler crosses to lameness attributable to bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis

Growing broilers on wire flooring provides an excellent experimental model for exposing susceptibility to lameness attributable to bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO). Two independent experiments (E1, E2) were designed to compare the susceptibilities of broilers from 4 commercial crosses (W, X, Y, and Z). The standard crosses (W and Y) grow rapidly at an early age, whereas high-yield crosses (X and Z) initially tend to grow more slowly. Chicks were obtained from a commercial hatchery for E1, or were hatched at the University of Arkansas Poultry Research Hatchery for E2. Males and females were reared together (E1; n = 360/cross) or separately (E2; n = 390/cross) in 3 × 3 m pens on litter or wire flooring (wire). Necropsies revealed lesions that were pathognomonic for BCO in ≥94% of the birds that became lame. The SigmaStat Z-test was used to compare cumulative lameness incidences at 8 wk of age. For birds reared on litter, lameness incidences were low and did not differ between crosses or sexes (range: 2.2 to 4.6%; P ≥ 0.6). When males were reared on wire, their lameness incidences (by cross) were E1 = 52% for Wb; 42% for Xc; 69% for Ya, and 44% for Zbc; E2 = 31% for Wb; 19% for Xc; 49% for Ya; and 25% for Zbc. For females reared on wire, the lameness incidences were E1 = 40% for Wb, 30% for Xc, 49% for Ya, and 28% for Zc; E2 = 16% for W; 15% for X; 16% for Y; and 15% for Z (ns). Accordingly, the hierarchical ranking for BCO susceptibility by broiler cross was X ≤ Z ≤ W < Y for males in E1 and E2, for females in E1, and for males and females pooled in E1 and E2. Standard broiler crosses developed higher incidences of lameness than high-yield crosses, implicating an association between rapid early growth and susceptibility to BCO. Rearing the females separately on wire in E2 led to uniformly low incidences of BCO, regardless of cross. Stress-mediated immunosuppression contributes to the pathogenesis of BCO; perhaps female broilers experience less social or competitive stress when reared separately from their male hatch mates.

Thermal Environment, Ammonia Concentrations, and Ammonia Emissions of Aviary Houses with White Laying Hens

Abstract. Maintaining comfortable thermal environments and good indoor air quality is essential to ensuring optimal production performance, welfare, and health of animals. Alternative laying-hen housing systems are being adopted by some egg producers in the U.S. However, information on indoor thermal and aerial environments of such alternative housing systems is meager. This article reports a one-year monitoring of thermal conditions (air temperature and relative humidity or RH) and ammonia (NH 3 ) concentrations and emissions of four aviary laying-hen houses (same dimensions, manure belt plus litter floor systems, 50,000-hen capacity each) at a commercial farm in the Midwest U.S. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations at the air inlet and near the exhaust fans were measured and used, along with literature values of the metabolic rates of the hens, to estimate building ventilation rate (VR). The results show that indoor temperature, RH, CO 2 concentration, NH 3 concentration, and VR of the four houses (mean ±standard deviation) were 23.4°C ±0.3°C, 64% ±3%, 1520 ±87 ppm, 5.2 ±0.4 ppm, and 4.5 ±0.6 m 3 h -1 hen -1 , respectively. The highest daily mean NH 3 concentration was 13 ppm (and 20 ppm within the day) in winter. The NH 3 emission rate was 0.14 ±0.01 g d -1 hen -1 . These values of NH 3 concentrations and emissions were lower than those reported for European aviary houses. The NH 3 emissions of the monitored aviary houses in this study are comparable to those of U.S. manure-belt cage houses, but are much lower than those of U.S. high-rise cage houses. The magnitude of NH 3 emissions observed in this study was consistent with that of similar aviary houses with brown hens in another extended field measurement in the same region.

Foliage and Litter Chemistry, Decomposition, and Nutrient Release in Pinus taeda

Following fertilization of forest plantations, high accumulations of nutrients in the forest floor creates the need to assess rates of forest floor decomposition and nutrient release. The study site was a 25-year old experimental loblolly pine plantation in the North Carolina Sandhills Region. Soluble and insoluble N, P, carbohydrate and phenol-tannin fractions were determined in foliage and litter by extraction with trichloroacetic acid. The long-term forest floor decomposition rate and decomposition and nutrient release in an experiment simulating removal of the overstory canopy were also determined. In litter, insoluble protein-N comprised 80%–90% of total-N concentration while soluble inorganic- and organic-P comprised 50%–75% of total-P concentration explaining forest floor N accumulations. Fertilization did not increase soluble carbohydrates in litter and forest floor decomposition rates. Loblolly pine forest floor decomposing in environmental conditions simulating removal of the overstory canopy was greatly accelerated and indicated 75% mass loss and release of 80% of the N pool within one year. This could result in a loss of substantial quantities of N at harvest due to low N uptake by seedlings in the newly planted next rotation suggesting management of the forest floor at harvest is essential to conserve site N capital in these N limited systems.

Influence of plastic slatted floors compared with pine shaving litter on Pekin Duck condition during the summer months

The management and well-being of commercial Pekin ducks has been studied in the European Union where straw is the predominant litter source. In the United States, however, the most prevalent litter is wood shavings, with a recent trend toward using plastic slatted flooring. A previous study in the United States evaluated the relationship between flooring type (litter, slats) and duck condition during winter months and found very few differences between the 2 in terms of overall duck condition. The purpose of the current study was to reevaluate the 2 flooring systems during the summer months to determine if seasonal differences would interact with flooring type to have an impact on duck condition. Eighteen commercial barns that produce Pekin ducks for Maple Leaf Farms Inc. (Leesburg, IN), located in northern Indiana and southern Wisconsin (n = 9 litter; n = 9 raised slatted floor), were used for this study. Twenty ducks were randomly selected from 5 predetermined areas within each house (n = 100 total) and scored for eye condition, nostril and feather cleanliness, and feather and foot pad quality at 7, 21, and 32 d of age. Environmental data, including carbon monoxide, ammonia, RH, and temperature, were also obtained at each collection day. The only statistical differences in body condition occurred at 7 d; there were more ducks with clear eyes and eye rings on the litter flooring, whereas average nostril scores were better on the plastic slatted floors. Live weight, weight gain per day, flock mortality, and condemnations at the plant were collected, and the only statistical difference was a higher gain per day for ducks reared on slatted floors compared with litter (P < 0.05). There were no differences between flooring systems in the environmental parameters measured within the barns. In summary, there were very few differences between the litter and slatted flooring systems, indicating that there may not be clear advantages for one particular flooring system over the other from the point of view of duck well-being and production.

The influence of watershed run‐off on the hydrology, forest floor litter and soil carbon of headwater wetlands

ABSTRACTThe effects of land use and land cover (LULC) on aquatic systems have been extensively studied however less research has focused on headwater wetlands. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of watershed land conversion and associated run‐off on the hydrology and carbon cycling of headwater wetlands in coastal Alabama, USA. A total of 15 headwater wetlands were selected to reflect a range of surrounding LULC across coastal Alabama. Land use and soil data were utilized to estimate watershed run‐off curve numbers (CN) that were used with precipitation data to calculate surface run‐off (Q). Within each wetland, water level recorders were installed to monitor ground water levels for 1 year and data were used to generate hydrological metrics related to stage and flashiness. Data varied among sites, but wetlands with higher watershed CN tended to have a greater tendency for water level measurements to exceed the normal fluctuation range (outliers). Carbon dynamics associated with leaf litter and soil storage were also measured during this time period. Leaf litter traps were installed to determine litter fall carbon input (CLF). Bimonthly monitoring of forest floor carbon (CFF) was conducted to evaluate its relationship to watershed run‐off. Soil carbon content was quantified in each wetland by collecting 40‐cm cores analysed at 10 cm sections. Watershed run‐off characteristics (CN and Q) were significantly related to mean CFF and CFF : CLF (CFF adjusted for the amount of CLF) suggesting that hydrologic export and possibly decomposition increased with run‐off. Surface soil (0–10 cm) carbon content was related to median groundwater level; however, no relationship was detected between soil carbon and CN or Q. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Top-Down Regulation of Litter Invertebrates by a Terrestrial Salamander

Terrestrial plethodontid salamanders are abundant predators within the forest floor litter of eastern North America, and are hypothesized to regulate soil and litter invertebrate density and species composition. I tested this hypothesis during a 6-yr study of the effects of the Eastern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) on the invertebrate community of a forest site in northeast Ohio. Salamander surface density, invertebrate abundance, and community composition were monitored within 30 open, circular plots. Variation in plot occupancy by P. cinereus was achieved by supplying plots with differing amounts of artificial cover (0, 1, or 4 ceramic tiles) that served as refuges for the salamanders. Salamander plot occupancy, invertebrate density, leaf litter mass, and leaf litter moisture were quantified each spring and fall from 2003 through 2008. Statistically significant effects of salamander plot-occupancy on invertebrate densities were found for several taxa of mesofauna, including several Collembola taxa, oribatid mites, pseudoscorpions, and psocoptera. The strength and direction of salamander effects varied among taxa and included negative, positive, and no effects on invertebrate densities. The magnitude and sign of salamander effects on invertebrate densities were predicted by seasonal and interannual variation in leaf litter mass and, to a lesser extent, litter moisture content. Salamander effects decreased with increasing litter mass and were more often negative when litter mass was high, whereas positive effects on invertebrate densities were more likely when litter mass was low. For several taxa, the positive effect of P. cinereus also increased with litter moisture. I propose two mechanistic hypotheses for these dynamics that integrate behavioral ecology of salamander prey selection and territorial defense with variation in litter mass and litter moisture.

Carbon stock in topsoil, standing floor litter and above ground biomass in &lt;i&gt;Tectona grandis&lt;/i&gt; plantation 10-years after establishment in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria

This paper provides information on carbon stock at the habitat level in the above ground biomass (ABG), standing floor litter and soils in a 10 year-old Tectona grandis plantation following restoration of a degraded secondary forest at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife Nigeria. Four sample plots 25 m x 25 m, two in Tectona grandis plantation and two in a nearby degraded secondary forest were studied. Soil samples were randomly collected at 0-20 cm and bulk density determined. Standing floor litter was randomly collected at five points every three months for one year, sorted into different litter components. Soil and standing floor litters carbon concentration and C stock were determined. Above ground biomass (ABG) and carbon stock were significantly (p=0.003 and p=0.0001) higher in the plantation, the order is ABG &gt; soil &gt; standing floor leaf litter &gt; standing floor wood litter. Soil C stock varies from 10.47 t ha-1 in the plantation to 10.58 t ha-1 C in the forest. Above ground biomass, standing leaf and wood litter were estimated as 18.26-5.81, 0.49-0.36, 0.06-0.08 t ha-1 C, respectively (plantation to secondary forest). Reforestation after 10 years has increased C stocks by 45% in ABG in the plantations.Keywords: Carbon stock, degraded forest, plantation, reforestation, standing litters

Site Characteristics as Predictors ofLonicera maackiiin Second-Growth Forests of Central Kentucky, USA

ABSTRACT: Non-native invasive plants can negatively affect the abundance and survival of native plant species and alter ecosystem function. Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) is an invasive shrub that is an increasingly onerous problem for forest managers in eastern North America. We examined site-specific characteristics related to the presence and abundance of Amur honeysuckle, and other non-native invasive plants, in 15 second growth forests in central Kentucky. Individual remnants were characterized by: (1) frequency and cover of non-native invasive and native shrubs, (2) overstory tree basal area, (3) forest floor litter depth, (4) species composition of leaf litter, and (5) soil characteristics. Of the measured variables, the only statistically significant relationships we discovered were between Amur honeysuckle and characteristics of the forest floor. We found significant negative relationships between Amur honeysuckle presence and both forest floor litter depth (P = 0.01) and the percent of oak ...

Larval habitat and behaviour ofPhenes raptor(Odonata: Petaluridae): a review of current knowledge, with new observations

Phenes raptor is one of only two petalurid dragonflies with a documented non-fossorial larval lifestyle. There have been few reported observations of larvae and their habitat, and the behaviour and ecology of this unique South American species remain largely unknown. This paper provides a review of previously published and unpublished information, and new observations on the habitat and behaviour of larvae and imagines. Larval habitat ranges from fens or seepages to moist terrestrial forest floor litter habitats. Better understanding the ecology and behaviour of the species will require observation of mating locations, additional observations of larvae in habitat and of oviposition and emergence sites across the species’ broad geographic and bioclimatic range.

Influence of raised plastic floors compared with pine shaving litter on environment and Pekin duck condition

Commercial poultry production management practices have been under increased public scrutiny driven by concerns for food safety and animal welfare. Within the United States, wood shavings and raised plastic floors are common flooring systems used in duck production. It is intuitive that each flooring type would present different management challenges influencing physical characteristics of growing ducks. This study evaluated the relationship between flooring type and duck condition during the winter. Random samples of 20 ducks from 5 predetermined areas (n = 100) were examined in commercial duck houses (n = 9, litter; n = 11, raised plastic slats). Ducks were assessed at 7, 21, and 32 d of age for eye, nostril, and feather cleanliness, feather and foot pad quality, and gait. The data were analyzed to determine the proportion of ducks with a given score. In both housing types, the proportion of 0 scores for foot pad quality improved during the production cycle (P < 0.0001). Feather hygiene declined with age in ducks reared on litter flooring, whereas ducks reared on slatted flooring had cleaner feathers at d 32 (P < 0.011). With the exception of foot pad scores, the majority of ducks had no detectable problems for any single trait. The only main effect due to flooring pertained to feather quality with the proportion of ducks having a 0 or 1 score greater in litter flooring systems than slats (P < 0.05). Overall, the condition of ducks reared, regardless of flooring system, was considered to be good.

The Effects of Forest Thinning Practices and Altered Nutrient Supply on Soil Trace Gas Fluxes in Colorado

Increases in wildfire activity in the western United States have prompted land managers to reevaluate management practices. In the Colorado Front Range, where population density is high, there is often a great concern regarding wildfire which leads to efforts that will reduce fire hazard. The most common method of achieving this goal is to thin the forest of small diameter trees. Oftentimes these practices are undertaken with little knowledge of the ecological consequences of such treatments. We investigated the effect(s) of three treatments (control, thinning-only and broadcast chipping) on trace gas fluxes (CO2, CH4, and N2O), litter mass, and soil carbon and nitrogen. In a small plot study, we used a 2 × 3 × 3 randomized complete block design to determine the influence of nutrient amendments (woodchips, nitrogen, and phosphorus availability) on trace gas fluxes. The stand-management study revealed that neither thinning-only nor broadcast chipping significantly affected soil carbon or nitrogen, while thinning-only significantly reduced the amount of forest floor litter. Each trace gas flux was significantly affected by the date of sampling (June or August). CO2 and N2O fluxes each had a significant interaction between treatment and sampling date. We attribute this to a difference in moisture availability between the sampling times. In the plot study we found that only the interaction between woodchip addition and phosphorus availability significantly affected CO2 flux. Nitrous oxide fluxes were not significantly affected by any combination, however, methane uptake was found to respond significantly to different nitrogen and phosphorus levels.

Senescent Neotropical flowers (Lecythidaceae) offer a rich nutrient source to ground-foraging arthropods1,2

Forest floor litter communities include detritivorous, predacious, and parasitic arthropods that feed on, or forage within, the decaying organic material. Although this substrate is heterogeneous, little research has investigated the preferential feeding tendencies of these arthropods. The objective of this study, conducted in the lowland rain forest of French Guiana, was to examine some of the factors that may influence foraging behavior. Plots were covered with either leaf or floral litter from three species of Lecythidaceae (Brazil nut family), and traps were set within and above each plot. Traps baited with floral litter yielded significantly more arthropods than those baited with leaf litter. Floral and leaf tissues were subsequently analyzed for moisture, fiber, sugar and nutrient concentrations. These analyses indicate that, relative to leaf litter, floral litter provides a quantitatively richer nutrient source available at lower energy expenditure, suggesting that these arthropods (mostly insects) may be operating under optimal foraging strategy.

Effects of housing system, slaughter age, and sex on slaughter and carcass traits of native Turkish ducks

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different housing systems, slaughter age, and sex on slaughter and carcass traits of native Turkish ducks. A total of 133 ducklings were used. One-day-old ducklings were divided into 2 housing groups, a cage system and a deep litter floor system, under uniform conditions. Housing system significantly affected hot carcass, cold carcass, breast, wing, neck, and back percentages (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, and P < 0.001). The results of the current study showed the influence of housing system, sex, and slaughter age on slaughter and carcass traits. The slaughter and carcass traits and feed conversion efficiency were higher in the deep litter floor system than in the cage system for native Turkish ducks. The slaughter and carcass traits of male ducks were higher than those of female ducks. The ideal slaughter weight for native Turkish ducks was reached at 8 weeks, whereas the results for hot carcass weight, cold carcass weight, hot carcass percentage, and cold carcass percentage were better at 10 weeks of age. Therefore, it seems most appropriate to slaughter native Turkish ducks at 10 weeks of age.

Decomposition differences of labile carbon from litter to soil in a tropical rain forest and rubber plantation of Xishuangbanna, southwest China

We used solid-state carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to compare chemical compositions of carbon in plant litter, forest floor and soil in a native seasonal rain forest (SR) with those in a rubber plantation (RP) in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. We also applied a sequential fumigation–incubation (SFI) procedure to characterize the chemical compositional change of soil organic carbon (SOC) during soil degradation. It was found that RP had 1.5–1.7 times greater in alkyl C0–45ppm proportions and smaller O-alkyls C45−110 fractions in litter and forest floor materials than SR. Degradation of labile organic carbon (LOC) in fresh litter was primarily limited to O-alkyl C and O2-alkyl C in both forests, suggesting litters of RP were less decomposable than that of SR. SOC in RP was 2.3 percent higher in aromatics C110–160ppm proportions and 0.03 percent in aromaticity value than those in SR. With the absence of new C input and fauna, degradation of soil LOC companied with loss of carbonyls C160−220ppm in RP, and alkyl C and aromatics C110–160ppm in SR. Our data indicated that rubber planting induced carbon loss and extensive humification in the soil. Sources of the decomposed soil LOC can compose of both simple and complex chemical compounds.

Comparative analysis of the influence of climate change and nitrogen deposition on carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems in European Russia: simulation modelling approach

Abstract. An individual-based simulation model, EFIMOD, was used to simulate the response of forest ecosystems to climate change and additional nitrogen deposition. The general scheme of the model includes forest growth depending on nitrogen uptake by plants and mineralization of soil organic matter. The mineralization rate is dependent on nitrogen content in litter and forest floor horizons. Three large forest areas in European Central Russia with a total area of about 17 000 km2 in distinct environmental conditions were chosen. Simulations were carried out with two climatic scenarios (ambient climate and climate change) and different levels of nitrogen deposition (ambient value and increase by 6 and 12 kg N ha−1 yr−1). The simulations showed that increased nitrogen deposition leads to increased productivity of trees, increased organic matter content in organic soil horizons, and an increased portion of deciduous tree species. For the climate change scenario, the same effects on forest productivity and similar shifts in species composition were predicted but the accumulation of organic matter in soil was decreased.

Earthworms, litter and soil carbon in a northern hardwood forest

The important role of soil carbon (C) in the global C cycle has stimulated interest in better understanding the mechanisms regulating soil C storage and its stabilization. Exotic earthworm invasion of northern forest soils in North America can affect soil C pools, and we examined their effects on these mechanisms by adding 13C labeled leaf litter to adjacent northern hardwood forests with and without earthworms. Two types of labeled litter were produced, one with the 13C more concentrated in structural (S) components and the other in non-structural (NS) components, to evaluate the role of biochemical differences in soil C stabilization. Earthworm invasions have reduced soil C storage in the upper 20 cm of the soil profile by 37 %, mostly by eliminating surface organic horizons. Despite rapid mixing of litter into mineral soil and its incorporation into aggregates, mineral soil C has not increased in the presence of earthworms. Incorporation of litter C into soil and microbial biomass was not affected by biochemical differences between S versus NS labeled litter although NS litter C was assimilated more readily into earthworm biomass and S litter C into fungal hyphae. Apparently, the net effect of earthworm mixing of litter and forest floor C into mineral soil, plus stabilization of that C in aggregates, is counterbalanced by earthworm bioturbation and possible priming effects. Our results support recent arguments that biochemical recalcitrance is not a major contributor to the stabilization of soil C.

Myxogastrid distribution within the leaf litter microhabitat.

The moist chamber culture technique was used to examine the distribution of myxogastrids at four different levels (or strata) of the forest floor leaf litter microhabitat. Each stratum was characterized by a distinct assemblage of species; moreover, both richness and abundance varied throughout. Many species appeared to exhibit a preference for a particular stratum, whereas others were widespread. Overall, the species richness recorded in the study was relatively high considering the total area sampled. These data suggest that for any study of the forest floor litter microhabitat, an effort should be made to examine all strata so as not to miss any of the species present.

Forest Floor, Litter Fall and Nutrient Dynamics in Young aged Shisham Forests in Moist Plain area of Kumaon of Uttarakhand

Present paper illustrates the litter and nutrient dynamics of Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) forests at 1-3 years aged growing in Tarai belt of Kumaon of Uttarakhand. The objectives of this study were to determine the litter inputs, nutrients (NPK) and their dynamics. Shisham is commonly occurred in the nutrient poor site because of their leguminous features. This study was carried out in young aged Shisham forests for the estimation of tree density, forest floor, litter fall and nutrients content and returns. The litter trap methods were used for the estimation of forest floor biomass and litter input. However, the nutrients of litters and soil related parameters were calculated as already mentioned various workers. Tree density was 1111 tree/ha in each forest. The average forest floor mass was 2.54 (2yr) –2.84 t ha-1. Of this, herbaceous live accounted for 12-17 %. Among the litter components, partially and more decomposed litter shared maximum. The litter and herbaceous components was found in increasing and decreasing order with age of stand. The forest floor litter was 3.22(3yr)-3.72(1yr) in rainy, 2.78(3yr)-3.10(1yr) in winter and 1.36(2yr)-2.12(3yr). The annual replacement of forest floor litter ranged from 88-97% with a turnover time 1.03-1.14 year. The turnover rate of different nutrients (NPK) was 47-57%. It was decreased with increase in forest age. The total amount of nutrient return to the soil through litter input was 2.20-12.42 for N, 0.21-1.10 for P and 0.65-3.62 kg h-1 yr-1 for K. It was increased with increase of forest age because of higher amount of litter accumulation. The nutrient use efficiency was (NUE) was 66.2-108.1 for N, 745.6-1202.9 for P and 227.0-361.3 for K. The present findings of young age Shisham forest would be beneficial for the further management study of Shisham forest particularly in relation to the litter and nutrients point of view.

Restoring ecosystem carbon sequestration through afforestation: A sub-tropic restoration case study

The long-term Forest Restoration Experimental Project (FREP) was established in 1991 on a sub-tropical, barren, degraded, red soil with a rolling terrain located in Taihe County, Jianxi province, China. The objective of the FREP was to evaluate the effects of restoration, through afforestation of various local climax species, on ecological functions to provide guidance for future restoration projects on severely deteriorated landscapes, which are very common in southern China. In this study, we selected five restoration forests: Chinese sweetgum (Liquidamber formosana), schima (Schima superb), masson’s pine (Pinus massoniana), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), Chinese sweetgum×slash pine mixtures, and one experimental control (natural recovery) to evaluate the differences in carbon storage and pool structures, including above- and below-ground carbon pools, forest floor litter, woody debris, and soil organic carbon (SOC). A similar assessment was also conducted on the species functional groups (coniferous forest, broad-leaved forest, and mixed-species forest – broad-leaved×coniferous species mixture) based on groupings of studied species. We also evaluated the recovery trajectory of FREP’s evergreen broad-leaved forest by comparing it with local ecosystems.Over the 19-year study period, the Total Ecosystem Carbon (TEC) stocks in the five restoration types were significantly higher than that in the control sites, but there were no significant differences in the TEC stock among the restoration types. The TEC was 119MgCha−1 for Chinese sweetgum, 118MgCha−1 for schima, 105MgCha−1 for masson’s pine, 104MgCha−1 for slash pine, and 124MgCha−1 for the mixture. However, there was a significant variation in the carbon pool structure among restoration functional groups. The SOC pool sizes of broad-leaved and mixed-species forest were 25% and 16% significantly higher than the coniferous forest, respectively. This difference may be explained by the recovery trajectory, which suggests that the evergreen forest (schima) in FREP is still in the early developmental stage, and its projected rate of growth is much slower than the average growth rate in the region. This study clearly demonstrated that active restoration can enhance ecosystem carbon sequestration. Clearly, a long-term monitoring program is critical for obtaining more information that will enable us to extrapolate our findings for broader restoration plans and to increase the carbon sequestration strength of restored forests.