Literal Interpretation Research Articles

Online Metaphor Comprehension in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Eye Tracking Study

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate novel metaphor comprehension in adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Previous literature is conflicting about whether individuals with ASD have impairment in this particular type of figurative language. Participants in the study completed a visual world paradigm eye-tracking task, which involved selecting an interpretation of an auditorily presented sentence (i.e. a picture-sentence matching task), where images corresponded to literal and metaphorical interpretations. Thus, the study also investigated online processing, via reaction times and eye movements. Forty adults participated in the study (18 with ASD and 22 typically-developing controls). Each participant completed the AQ questionnaire and had their vocabulary assessed. Results showed that participants with ASD comprehended metaphorical utterances with the same accuracy as controls. However, they had significantly slower reaction times, and specifically, were approximately 800 ms slower. Analysis of eye movements revealed that participants with ASD showed significantly longer fixation times on both the target and distractor image, the latter of which suggests difficulty overcoming the literal interpretation. Consistent with some prior studies, we showed that adults with ASD are not impaired in novel metaphor comprehension, but they were clearly less efficient. Verbal abilities did not significantly relate to performance. Finally, our online processing measure (eye tracking) provided us with insights into the nature of the ASD inefficiency (i.e. a literality bias).

The Significance of Narrative in Cyril of Alexandria's Exegesis

Scholars have rightly identified the roles of literal/historical interpretation and noetic/spiritual interpretation in Cyril of Alexandria's exegesis of Scripture. This article argues that narrative contributes to both methods by using events in the past to explain Scripture's meaning. He applies concepts established historically by Exodus’ recount of the Israelites’ presence in Egypt to his interpretation of the prophetic books. On the one hand, his literal interpretation draws from the Israelites’ return to idolatry, detailed in Exodus xxxii. On the other hand, his noetic interpretation relates the Egyptians’ oppression of the Israelites detailed in Exodus i to humanity's limitations under the devil.

Negation Forms in the Poetry of Philip Larkin

ABSTRACT This article presents an analysis of negation forms in Philip Larkin’s poetry, specifically forms negated by suffixes and prefixes. Drawing on the literary stylistic analysis approach, as proposed by Geoffrey Leech, we progress from linguistic description to literary interpretation, with the assumption that linguistics and literature should complement one another. We discuss nine poems by Larkin, with the focus placed on patterns that deliver precise understanding of the text’s unifying theme. The major argument is that the frequent use of negation forms by Larkin is not arbitrary; rather its use might illustrate an effort meant to make these forms resonate with the poem’s atmosphere and social contexts. The results suggest that linguistic choices and poetic style have helped Larkin convey messages concerning three themes, namely, 1) uncertainty, 2) futility of life, and 3) agnosticism. By focusing on Larkin’s poems and the ways in which the poems are read, different strands are plaited, and multilevel stylistics approaches help readers to focus on the gaps concerning social contexts that could illuminate other possibilities and meanings.

Suspension of the limitation period due to notification ofthe legal successor about the initiation of proceedings ina case concerning a tax crime or tax off ense

The article discusses the controversies related to Article 70 6 point 1 of the Tax Ordinance Act of August 29,1997, which provides for the suspension of the limitation period for tax liabilities in the event of initiating proceedingsfor a tax crime or tax offense. Referring to the controversies previously discussed in doctrine and case law,concerning the lack of a requirement to notify the taxpayer about the initiation of proceedings and subsequentlythe instrumental use of tax crime proceedings to suspend the limitation period for tax liabilities, the article raisesthe question of the effectiveness of suspending the limitation period due to notifying the taxpayer’s legal successor.The practice of initiating proceedings against the legal successors of the taxpayer after the cessation of itslegal existence or transformation of its legal form applies, for example, to situations where a company, againstwhich tax authorities have initiated a control or tax proceedings, undergoes a division through acquisition. Adoptingthe primacy of the literal interpretation of Article 70 6 point 1 of the Tax Ordinance, it should be consideredthat the suspension of the limitation period due to notification of the legal successor is ineffective. On the otherhand, applying a purposive interpretation allows preventing practices of avoiding tax liability by taxpayers undergoingreorganization.

Four hundred Greek idiomatic expressions: Ratings for subjective frequency, ambiguity, and decomposability.

Idioms differ from other forms of figurative language because of their dimensions of subjective frequency, ambiguity (possibility of having a literal interpretation), and decomposability (possibility of the idiom's words to assist in its figurative interpretation). This study focuses on the Greek language and aims at providing the first corpus of 400 Greek idioms rated for their dimensions by 113 native Greek students, aged 19 to 39 years. The study aimed at (1) rating all idioms for their degree of subjective frequency, ambiguity, and decomposability, and (2) investigating the relationships between these dimensions. Three different assessments were conducted, during which the participants were asked to evaluate the degree of idioms' subjective frequency, ambiguity, and decomposability. The idioms were selected from a dictionary of Greek idioms titled "Dictionary of Idioms in Modern Greek" (Vlaxopoulos, 2007). This study resulted in the first database of Greek idioms assessed for their dimensions. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) (two-way mixed, absolute agreement) demonstrated high internal consistency in the ratings given for each dimension, for the same idiom, by the different individual raters. Correlational analyses showed that subjective frequency was positively moderately correlated with decomposability, and positively weakly correlated with ambiguity, while decomposability was positively moderately correlated with ambiguity.

Unity and Pride: An Exploration of the Motivations Behind the People’s Decision to Build the Tower in Genesis 11:1-9

This article explores the complex reasons for a community’s construction of a tall building frequently referred to as the “Tower” in literature and history. This study uses an interdisciplinary lens and sources from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and history to identify the fundamental sources of pride and solidarity that motivated the group effort. The Tower, a representation of human togetherness and ambition, is evidence of humanity’s goal to reach the stars. Beneath its imposing exterior, nevertheless, is a rich tapestry of reasons skilfully woven by those who dared to construct it. To offer light on the complex nature of human ambition and group action, this research attempts to analyze these motivations. This study investigates the function of unity in promoting group initiatives using historical accounts, literary interpretations, and psychological theories. It investigates how a shared vision may unite disparate societies in pursuit of a common objective despite individual differences. Examining the idea of pride, it looks at how the need for achievement and acknowledgment fuels human ambition and the formation of collective identities. This study emphasizes the Tower narrative’s ongoing relevance by comparing historical and modern examples. It contends that the inspirations for its creation are timeless and culturally ubiquitous, mirroring the yearning for transcendence, unification, and acknowledgment among all people. Ultimately, this research provides insights into how individual goals and group efforts interact. Understanding the driving forces behind the Tower’s construction gives us critical new perspectives on the dynamics of human ambition and the never-ending pursuit of pride and unification.

From Imminent Threat to Metaphor: Gog and Magog in Modern Sunnī Sources

Abstract Gog and Magog are portrayed in the Quran as two malevolent forces that once wreaked havoc on earth and will reappear near the end of time. Hadiths elaborate their natures and actions and served as the principal source for premodern Muslim treatment of the two. In the modern period, Gog and Magog have, besides remaining objects of Quran exegesis, received considerable attention from apocalyptic writers. This article contributes to current scholarship on the modern Muslim discourse on Gog and Magog by examining the views of some notable Sunnī Quran commentators, which have thus far been almost entirely neglected. I show that they adopt either a literal interpretation, whereby Gog and Magog are understood as certain humans, or a metaphorical interpretation, whereby they are conceived as symbols of various phenomena. I also survey, in contrast to most previous researchers, the ideas of several non-Arab writers, especially the Trinidadian Imran Nazar Hosein (b. 1942), author of several apocalyptic works, including a book on Gog and Magog and their dominance in today’s world. My discussion highlights the remarkable diversity of perspectives among Muslim scholars as well as the tendency to demythologize Gog and Magog by either avoiding hadiths or understanding them in light of contemporary circumstances.

California Dreamin’ : Trois variations sur le lieu

The representation of California in French literature has become increasingly prevalent in the past twenty years. The American West Coast, and particularly the metropolis of Los Angeles, do not conform to an established portrait of the United States centered on New York, Chicago, and the South. This article presents three literary interpretations of California by French authors and puts them in conversation with common preconceptions on the state: its superficiality, its disconnection, its glamor. Laure Murat (Ceci n’est pas une ville, 2016), Jean Rolin (Le Ravissement de Britney Spears, 2011), and Maylis de Kerangal (Naissance d’un pont, 2010) approach Californian spaces and communities through contrasting proximity to their referential truth and for three different narrative aims: Murat composes a meditative autobiography, Rolin an (absurd) spy thriller, and Kerangal a globalized Western. All three confront the “non-spaces” and “blank zones” that define or threaten their narrative environments, looming deserts reputedly hostile to meaning, beauty, and lived experiences. Each author gives particular care to the spatial systems borne of a culture that values diversity, fame, money, and the car.

Conditions for the restriction of intellectual rights in the protection of the constitutional right of citizens to health protection

The article examines and substantiates the conditions under which it is possible to restrict intellectual rights, primarily patent holders, in order to protect the constitutional right of a citizen to health protection. The topic is becoming especially relevant in the modern Russian realities of foreign sanctions and the need to ensure the availability, in particular, of medicines and medical devices. Based on the analysis of legislation the author identifies the main goals of restricting rights related to health protection and possible initiators of these restrictions. Based on the results of the study of the positions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on the restriction of rights, as well as on the basis of the analysis of doctrinal sources and the literal interpretation of the norms of sectoral legislation, the main conditions and criteria for restricting intellectual rights in the implementation of the constitutional right to health protection were specified, systematized and justified.

Paul's and the Position of Women in Worship Service: Study of 1 Timothy 2:8-15

The dichotomy that is often debated is patriarchal and feminist cultural systems. The centralization of human life is largely directed towards men, both in social and religious circles, thereby encouraging the objectification of women and dominating them. The space for women seems to be closed, this also happens in the Christian sphere, where there are still churches that adhere to a literal interpretation of the Bible. As a result, the reading of 1 Timothy 2:8-15 is misinterpreted. The main aim of this research is to reconstruct and present egalitarianization between women and men based on 1 Timothy 2:8-15, especially in the scope of worship services. It is still found that some churches reject women as priests. This research uses qualitative methods, with a critical historical approach. The results show that the Ephesian women were contaminated with a life of debauchery or a luxurious lifestyle, wanting to appear beyond their capacity. So they tend to ignore Christian values. So, it cannot be a measure to reject the existence of women as ministers of worship (pastor), only the church needs to pay attention to Christian values and foster them in Indonesia context.

The concept of discrimination, its forms and manifestations in accordance with the practice of the European Court of Human Rights

The paper examines the application of Article 14 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which prohibits discrimination. The author highlights the absence of a clear definition of "discrimination" in the text of the Convention, which complicates its interpretation. Examples from case law, such as the "Belgian Linguistic case" and "Sidabras and Džiautas v. Lithuania", illustrate different approaches to interpretation of the concept of discrimination. The following forms of discrimination are discussed: direct, indirect, discrimination by association, and positive actions. The necessity of considering the specific circumstances of individual cases for objective and reasonable court decision to be made is emphasized. The paper describes how the European Court of Human Rights protects the rights of individuals affected by discriminatory measures or actions, particularly in the context of education, employment, religion, etc. For instance, in the "Belgian Linguistic case," the Court preferred the English version of the Convention's wording, warning against a literal interpretation of the French version that could lead to excessive prohibition of any differentiation. Additionally, the "D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic" case illustrates the Court's approach to indirect discrimination and the importance of assessing the impact of state measures on specific groups. Positive measures, such as those highlighted in "Horváth and Kiss v. Hungary," demonstrate the Court's stance on the state's obligation to address systemic issues and provide effective protection against discrimination. The analysis underscores the broad scope of Article 14 and the role of the European Court of Human Rights in ensuring non-discrimination across various spheres.

Political emotions in a literature classroom

ABSTRACT The democratic potential of literature education has often been accentuated. In this article, we draw on Gert Biesta’s subjectification conception of democratic education, and view democracy as a concept open for (re)negotiation in the classroom. We are informed by Chantal Mouffe’s agonistic democratic theory, and its view of dissent as a foundational aspect of democracy, in that the struggle itself constitutes the identities of the opponents. Agonistic proposals for democratic education also pay attention to political emotions in the classroom. We pair agonism with Sara Ahmed’s view of emotion as performative to explore how power, identity and emotions are entangled in a student group and how this entanglement is integrated in the students’ conceptions of democracy. The students were in their last year of upper secondary school in Sweden. We analysed audio recordings from three group interviews with a total of eleven students. The interviews followed a literary discussion about the short story ‘Farangs’ by Rattawut Lapcharoensap, which was video recorded. The analysis shows that students referred to emotion when constructing the collective identities of themselves and their opponents, and that the power relations between these collective identities influenced what literary interpretations were centred in the discussion.

The phenomenon of film production: Literary and artistic projects of the XX-XXI centuries

Introduction: The phenomena of cinema production has attracted a lot of attention, especially when it comes to creative and literary endeavours that interpret it. It is essential to comprehend the creative processes and the function of the film producer in order to advance cultural practices.Objective: to express the phenomenon of producer’s activity in cinema on the basis of examples to literary and artistic projects of the XX-XXI centuries.Methods: The methods used in the study are the following: chronological, analytical, comparison, deduction, generalization, and abstraction.Results: As a result of this study, several problems were identified that are directly related to the process of contemporary culture creation. Firstly, the phenomenon of film production was revealed, and various examples of experiments by American writers of the 30s-70s of the XX century were given. It was them who managed to carry out a literary interpretation of the profession of film producer, as well as to ensure the development of the creative and search dialogue “film – television series”. The latter was revealed on the example of a television project The Offer, which is dedicated to the history of the creation of The Godfather. As a result, it has been established that this series has led to a fundamental change in the artistic understanding of the problem of film production.Conclusion: The conclusions drawn in this paper show that this project organically “fit” into the context of metamodernism and reflected its fundamental factors, namely: historioplasticity, craft turn, superhomogeneity, postirony, and quirky

A Linguistic Analysis of Idiomatic Expressions in Town Bemba: A Systematic Functional Linguistic

Idioms, as linguistic expressions, convey meanings that go beyond the literal interpretation of words. They are deeply rooted in historical and cultural contexts and are widely utilized by language speakers to effectively communicate specific messages. These expressions have diverse origins, including historical events, folklore, mythology, and popular culture, and they form an integral part of daily communication among Bemba speakers. In recent times, urban speakers of Town Bemba have developed idioms that reflect modern life and are associated with multilingual practices and shared experiences. This study aims to examine the nature of Town Bemba idioms as spoken in the Copperbelt province in Zambia. The study is guided by aspects of the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) model and the concept of recontextualization in analyzing the nature of idiomatic expressions used in Town Bemba. The study collected idioms from 20 purposively selected speakers of Town Bemba for oral interviews. The data were descriptively examined to unpack the conveyed meanings and the nature and form of the idioms in Town Bemba. The findings suggest several linguistic processes that give rise to idiomatic expressions, including linguistic coining, blending, and recontextualization of meaning. Additionally, the study demonstrates how multilingualism is used as a resource in forming non-traditional idiomatic expressions, incorporating linguistic features from different language sources. The study further shows how socio-cultural context and shared experiences of the speakers play a key role in determining the meaning associated with idioms.

Metaphorical Transfigurations: Symbolism and its Dynamics in Tewfik Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach

Within the convoluted theatrical universe of Tewfik Al-Fate Hakim's Cockroach, metaphor and symbolism emerge as potent instruments of societal critique and existential investigation. The seemingly mundane setting of a kitchen serves as a springboard for profound philosophical reflection in Al-Hakim's work, which is the focus of this paper's analysis. In order to probe the depths of human consciousness beyond literal interpretation, this study analyses Al-Hakim's use of symbolism and metaphor. A symbol of resiliency and existential battle is the cockroach, a lowly bug, a sign of primordial instincts, while the cat represents innate drives and the relentless course of fate. Also, the kitchen is a microcosm of society's dynamics, reflecting problems of existential misery and structural inequity. This study explores the human condition profoundly and invites readers to embark on a life-changing quest to understand the metaphorical and symbolic implication of the play.

Literackie przestrzenie agencji reklamowych w wybranych powieściach po 1945 r.

This article focuses on the literary depiction of advertising agencies in selected prose works after 1945. These specific spaces first appeared in American prose. After 1989, Polish writers also began to portray them. Despite this, they have not yet been extensively described by domestic literary scholars. This paper attempts to outline their characteristic features. It explores the evolution of the American advertising novel genre, pointing out Polish attempts to adopt it in the early 21st century. It also focuses on the spatial structure of advertising agencies and the organization of work conditioned by a specific corporate culture. The methods used for analysis include literary interpretation and narratology.

Literary Interpretation and Divination: Visual Adaptation in the Edgar Allan Poe Tarot

Abstract Rose Wright and Eugene Smith’s Edgar Allan Poe Tarot follows the basic structure of the Rider-Waite-Smith (RWS) tarot system. Each of the cards features an illustration by Smith that draws inspiration from and visually adapts an element of Poe’s work, depicting imagery, characters, and narrative moments. This tarot deck synthesizes these two distinct and interconnected types of “reading,” with the accompanying guide providing both an interpretation of the card’s significance drawing on the larger RWS system and critical literary analysis that connects Poe’s work to the specific card and its interpretation. The active engagement of reader response presents a wide range of interpretive possibilities and ways of connecting with and responding to Poe’s work through visual adaptation and the self-reflection central to the tarot tradition.

Religion, spirituality, and susceptibility to conspiracy theories: examining the role of analytic thinking and post-critical beliefs

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the political and scholarly attention on conspiracy theories. Among other predictors, religious and spiritual influences on conspiracy beliefs have been widely discussed in the literature. We suggest analyzing the relationship between religion and spirituality on the one hand and conspiracy beliefs on the other hand from the perspective of religious information processing. Based on the Post-Critical Beliefs Scale (PCBS), we argue that literal interpretations of religious information are positively associated with conspiracy beliefs. Furthermore, we assume that individual differences in analytic cognitive style account for the relationship between religious attitudes, spirituality, and conspiracism. Using a quota sample of German adults, we find that literal interpretations of religious content positively correlate with conspiracy beliefs for the literal affirmation of transcendence (e.g., orthodoxy) and the literal disaffirmation of transcendence (e.g., atheism). These findings suggest that religious information processing is related to conspiracy beliefs for religious and nonreligious individuals. Moreover, our results show a stable association between holistic spirituality and conspiracy beliefs. The relationships between different types of religious attitudes, spirituality, and conspiracy beliefs hold, even after accounting for analytic (versus intuitive) thinking. The implications for the study of religious attitudes and conspiracy beliefs are discussed.

Ibn Taymiyya and Divinities: A Critical Study of the Concepts of Affirmation, Anthropomorphism and Sense Organs

One of the distinctive features of Ibn Taymiyyah's approach to theology is his understanding of ambiguous texts involving anthropomorphic expressions, such as Al-yad "hand" and Al-Istiwaau "ascension." Hence arises the problematic aspect of the study, represented by the principal question: What are the characteristics that distinguish Ibn Taymiyyah's understanding of divine attributes from others, earning him such renown? The reason for this choice is to answer the previous question and its ramifications. The significance of the study lies in uncovering the foundations of Ibn Taymiyyah's understanding of attributes, and whether this understanding aligns with the issue of divine transcendence from resembling created beings. To achieve this, several methodologies were pursued, notably: the inductive approach, the descriptive approach, and the critical approach. The aim of the study is to reveal this understanding, which differs from others. The study concludes that his understanding of attributes is based on three pillars: affirmation, anthropomorphism, and sense organs. The intended meaning of affirmation is to negate all metaphorical meanings accepted by the text. The intended meaning of literal interpretation is that the hand and the face are entities in themselves, necessitating corporeality. Although he does not expressly affirm corporeality, he never categorically denies it. The study recommends examining the aspects of the methodology adopted by Ibn Taymiyyah in his understanding of attributive reports, in which he diverged from others.

Plays as linguistic games: a literal interpretation of Beckett’s postwar theatre

In this article, I propose a ‘literal’ interpretation of Beckett’s postwar theatre, which allows to give importance to an ‘aesthetic of sound’ in which a work of art finds its own sense in the fact that it is a linguistic game created by an author. After 1945, the author becomes unable to speak about the profound themes of the Western tradition, but can write plays in which there is the configuration of an aesthetic of the small talk, to be analyzed according to a hermeneutics of superficiality.