List Of Notifiable Diseases Research Articles

Chapter 12a: Epidemiology by country – an overview

• TBE is a flavivirus infection of the central nervous system (CNS), transmitted by ticks and in some rare instances by ingestion of unpasteurized milk. • TBE is diagnosed in the forested belts of Northern Eurasia ranging from eastern France and Norway down to northern Italy through central and Eastern Europe, Russia, Kazakhstan, and China to the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. • About 10,000 cases of TBE are reported annually. • The European Centers for Disease Control (E-CDC) have put TBE on their list of notifiable diseases; their case definition requires clinical symptoms of CNS infection plus microbiolog-ical confirmation of the infection, usually by detection of specific immunoglobulins, IgG and IgM. • Despite this, surveillance of the TBEV in both ticks and humans is incomplete. Reported incidences do not reflect actual risk since this fluctuates annually as a result of changes in exposure, vaccine uptake, intensity of case finding and reporting, and climate, just to men-tion the most relevant factors. • For largely unknown reasons (including human behavior, improved diagnostics, or climate change) TBEV appears to be spreading north, east, and even south to areas that were pre-viously believed to be free of the virus. • The country reports in Chapter 12b provide a current and official ‘state-of-the-art’ survey on TBE, with available information about the virus, vectors, modes of transmission, case reporting, vaccine and prevention efforts, burden of disease over time, age and gender distribution of cases, virus isolation data, and risk area distribution. • Chapter 12c provides a risk map for TBEV based on documented TBE cases, TBEV infection, as well as on the detection of TBEV in nature. This map does not reflect the incidence of the disease or the prevalence of the virus in a given area. As the intensity and complete-ness of epidemiological surveillance varies between different countries, the map presented here may not be entirely complete, and very likely TBEV infections and thus TBE may occur in additional (‘new’) areas.

Surveillance of Rickettsia in Jordan since 2013

This case study was written based on an outbreak of fever and rash that affected 19 children in two governorates (Alkarak and Madaba) in Jordan during summer 2013. Outbreak investigation data were collected through medical records, line listing form, interview treating physicians, and laboratory results. Outbreak investigations revealed that this outbreak was due to Rickettsia, which has not been reported in Jordan previously. After that, Jordan Ministry of health introduced rickettsia to the list of notifiable diseases and to the surveillance guidelines manual (version 2015). Participants of this case study are focal points of surveillance, Field Epidemiology Training Program (FETP) trainees, and other health professionals. At the end of the case study, participants should able to detect rickettsia, apply the principals of the outbreak investigation, use surveillance data to respond to an outbreak, engage the community to prevent the disease, and cooperate with other authorities to control the disease.

Communicable diseases. The case of sexually transmitted infections: A retrospective 3-year study

Introduction Health surveillance is essential for the effective impact assessment, monitoring and control of diseases and risks to health, including communicable diseases, and is necessary for an efficient public health practice capable of effectively protecting and promoting the health of populations. In Portugal, mandatory notification of communicable diseases established since 1949, in Law 2036, August 9. The current mandatory list of notifiable diseases encompasses 65 diseases, six of which are sexually transmitted infections (STIs), which are a public health problem.2 Methods A retrospective and descriptive study conducted through the collection of information from the database of the National Epidemiological Surveillance System. The notified cases of STIs between 2015 and 2017 disaggregated by demographic variables: sex, age and geographical location and clinical variables: disease and case definition. Results The total number of reported cases of STIs throughout these 3 years was 134, with the following distribution: 33.0% syphilis (n = 44), 25.4% gonorrhea (n = 34), 13.4% hepatitis C (n = 18), 13.4% HIV/AIDS (n = 18), 9.7% chlamydiase (n = 13) and 5.2% (n = 7) hepatitis B. Of the reported cases, 54.6% (n = 83) were males and 21.7% (n =33) were female, with ages ranging from 13 to 75 years and mean age of 39.5 years. Most of reported cases of STIs observed in Alto Seixalinho and Baixa da Banheira. Overall, there was an increase in the frequency of reported cases of STI, with a particular focus on gonorrhea. Conclusion Notification should be early because it can protect the health of the population by ensuring identification and follow-up of cases, identification of contacts, investigation and containment of disease outbreaks.

Genetic diversity of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infecting horses of Central-Southern Italy and preliminary results of its correlation with clinical and serological status

Babesia caballi and Theileria equi are tick-borne pathogens causing equine piroplasmosis infecting the Equidae family in which they cause significant sanitary and economic losses. Furthermore, equine piroplasmosis is included in the World Animal Health Organization (OIE) notifiable diseases list with possible movement restrictions for positive horses.Thirty-nine EDTA and whole-blood samples collected during 2013 and 2014 from symptomatic and asymptomatic horses of Central-Southern Italy were included in the present study either because of their strongly positive results in Real Time (RT) PCRs targeting the 18S rRNA gene specific for each piroplasm and/or due to their serological ELISA/18S rRNA RT-PCR discordant results. A nested PCR amplifying the hypervariable V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene of both piroplasms was performed on all samples. T. equi positive samples were also analysed with a PCR targeting the equi merozoite antigen 1-gene (EMA-1). The sequences obtained were thirty for T. equi, 25 of which were for the hypervariable V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene and 13 for the EMA-1 gene, with eight samples positive for both targets, while only six 18S rRNA gene sequences were retrieved for B. caballi.The phylogenetic analysis results are as follows: T. equi sequences of the 18S rRNA gene clustered in three different phylogenetic groups, respectively in the A (15), B (9) and C (1) while those of B. caballi in the A (1), B1 (3) and B2 (2) groups. T. equi sequences for EMA-1 gene clustered in A (11) and in B (2).This analysis confirms that both T. equi and B. caballi sequences present a genetic heterogeneity independently of their geographical location, similar to that reported by other authors.Statistical associations were evaluated between phylogenetic groups of T. equi 18S rRNA gene and each of the following variables, using Fisher's exact test: clinical signs, serological ELISA/18S rRNA RT-PCR discordant results and T. equi EMA-1 negativity. The different groups were found to be statistically related to the presence of signs (less present in group B samples), to ELISA negativity/18S rRNA RT-PCR positivity (more seronegative samples in group B). No statistical analysis was performed for the B. caballi as the number of sequences available was insufficient and for the EMA −1 sequences which almost all grouped in the same cluster.The results here obtained provide additional information about T. equi and B. caballi sequences, which could also be used to verify the performance of serological and molecular diagnostic methods.

Notifiable Disease Reporting among Physicians Practicing in Grenada

ObjectiveThe study was carried out to determine physicians’ knowledgeof notifiable reporting and to identify the barriers to reporting inGrenada.IntroductionDespite the significance of disease reporting to any health system,Grenada like most countries struggle with underreporting of notifiablediseases by physicians. In order to improve the national diseasesurveillance system in Grenada, it is critical understand the reasonsfor any underreporting. The study was conducted to determinephysicians’ knowledge of notifiable reporting and to identify thebarriers to reporting.MethodsThe Grenada Medical and Dental Council identified a total of129 registered and practicing physicians. A cross-sectional studydesign was developed to obtain information from all registeredand practicing physician. The survey tool included questions ondemographics; training history and medical practice details, as wellas knowledge, practice and barriers to reporting notifiable diseases.The survey was administered to physicians in both paper-based andelectronic formats.ResultsTo date only 13 surveys have been returned. Preliminary data showthat 61.5% of respondents rated an “average” on their knowledge ofwhich diseases are reportable and of those only 46 % knew where toobtain a list of notifiable diseases (NDs). Fifty three percent (53%)of respondents said that they have reported NDs to the relevantauthorities in the past. Thirty eight percent (38.5%) believed it shouldbe the responsibility of nurses to report NDs and 30.8% stated itshould be the physician. The major barriers to reporting, identifiedby the respondents were being too busy, too much time required, andlack of infrastructure or reporting systems. When asked about waysto improve reporting, 38.5% identified improvements to the reportingform, and 30.8% identified education of physicians on reportingprotocol and importance.ConclusionsWhile this is still preliminary data, the majority of the physicianssurveyed had some knowledge of reporting NDs. The barriers toreporting identified were being too busy and lack of infrastructure.Future improvements to the reporting system in Grenada shouldfocus on making forms electronic and less lengthy, and on educatingphysicians on the importance and protocol of reporting NDs.

Tracing partners of patients with syphilis infection remains challenging: experience of Geneva Hospital.

Syphilis has been reinstated on the list of notifiable diseases in Switzerland since 2006 and the active management of sexual partners is encouraged to avoid reinfection. However, contact tracing has yielded unsatisfactory results and the incidence of syphilis remains important, especially in high-risk populations. The aim of this study was to compare the proportions of notified sexual partners of patients diagnosed with syphilis by the laboratories of Geneva University Hospitals (HUG) with those diagnosed in private laboratories (non-HUG) and to assess the risk factors for no notification to sexual partners. All syphilis cases notified to the Office of the Surgeon General in Geneva (Switzerland) between 1 January 2011 and 31 December 2013 were analysed. The proportions of partner notification (PN) between HUG and non-HUG laboratories were compared by Chi square test and the main risk factors for no notification to sexual partners were assessed by binomial log-linear regression. Among a total of 720 notifications reported, 244 cases were diagnosed with contagious syphilis stages and 263 with non-contagious stages (i.e. successfully treated patients with or late latent cases). Overall, PN was higher among contagious than non-contagious cases (58.4% versus 31.0%; p = 0.030) and it was significantly higher in the non-HUG compared to the HUG group (75.9% versus 50.0%, respectively; p < 0.001). Risk factors independently associated with no notification to sexual partners were the place of diagnosis (risk ratio [RR] 1.66; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.21-2.27 for HUG versus non-HUG, respectively), age >45 years (RR 1.36; 95% CI: 1.05-1.76) and if the patient had received treatment for syphilis (RR 1.91; 95% CI: 1.38-2.66). Our results illustrate the difficulty of contact tracing in syphilis infection and the necessity to improve this crucial part of sexually transmitted infection management.

Mandatory tuberculosis case notification in high tuberculosis-incidence countries: policy and practice.

Mandatory tuberculosis (TB) notification is an important policy under the End TB Strategy, but little is known about its enforcement especially in high TB incidence countries. We undertook a literature search for selected high-incidence countries, followed by a questionnaire-based survey among key informants in countries with high-, intermediate- and low-TB incidence. Published literature on TB notification in high-incidence countries was limited, but it did illustrate some of the current barriers to notification and the importance of electronic systems to facilitate reporting by private providers. Required survey data were successfully gathered from 40 out of 54 countries contacted. TB is notifiable in 11 out of 15 high-incidence countries, all 16 intermediate-incidence countries, and all nine low-incidence countries contacted. TB case notification by public sector facilities is generally systematised, but few high-incidence countries had systems and tools to facilitate notification from private care providers. In the context of the new End TB Strategy aimed at eventual TB elimination, all countries should have TB on their national list of notifiable diseases. Enhancing the ease of notification by private providers is essential for effective implementation. To that effect, investing in strengthening disease surveillance systems and introducing digital tools to simplify notification are logical ways forward.

Las enfermedades crónicas como prioridad de la vigilancia de la salud pública en España

At present, epidemiological surveillance in Spain remains focused on the communicable diseases included in the list of notifiable diseases. However, there has been a change in epidemiological pattern that predominated until the last few decades of the twentieth century. Infectious diseases, which used to be the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, have given way to a predominance of chronic diseases. In this regard, progress has been made in the drafting and adoption of specific legal regulations on public health monitoring. However, Spain has yet to develop this legislation which, among other elements, includes the mandate to organize the surveillance of non-communicable diseases in Spain. This article aims to describe some points that should be considered in the development of a national surveillance system linked to existing strategies for the prevention and control of chronic diseases.

Species-specific oligonucleotide probe for detection of Bonamia exitiosa (Haplosporidia) using in situ hybridisation assay.

Bonamiosis is a disease affecting various oyster species and causing oyster mass mortalities worldwide. The protozoans Bonamia exitiosa and B. ostreae (Haplosporidia) are included in the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health as the causative agents of this disease. Although the geographic range of both species was considered different for years, both species are now known to co-occur in some European areas affecting the same host, Ostrea edulis, which strengthens the need of species-specific methods to unequivocally identify the species of Bonamia. An oligonucleotide probe for specific detection of B. exitiosa (BEX_ITS) was designed to be used in in situ hybridisation (ISH) assays. ISH assay with BEX_ITS probe showed species-specificity and more sensitivity than traditional histology to visualise the parasite inside host tissue. ISH assay showed that the oyster gonad was the area where the parasite was most frequently located, and was the exclusive organ of infection in some oysters. A recommendation arising from the study is that more than 1 organ (including gonad and gills) should be used for PCR-based diagnosis of B. exitiosa, to maximise the sensitivity.

Epidemiological evaluation of notifications of environmental events in the State of São Paulo, Brazil.

Increasing urbanization across the globe, combined with an increased use of chemicals in various regions, contributes to several environmental events that influence environmental health. Measures that identify environmental factors and events should be introduced to facilitate epidemiological investigations by health services. The Brazilian Ministry of Health published a new list of notifiable diseases on 25 January 2011 and introduced environmental events as a new category of notifiable occurrences. The Center for Epidemiologic Surveillance in State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, created an online notification system that highlights “environmental events”, such as exposure to chemical contaminants, drinking water with contaminants outside of the recommended range, contaminated air, and natural or anthropogenic disasters. This paper analyzed 300 notifications received between May 2011 and May 2012. It reports the number of notifications with event classifications and analyzes the events relating to accidents with chemical substances. This paper describes the characteristics of the accidents that involved chemical substances, methods used, types of substances, exposed population, and measures adopted. The online notification of environmental events increases the analysis of the main events associated with diseases related to environmental chemicals; thus, it facilitates the adoption of public policies to prevent environmental health problems.

Continuing Professional Development: Common paediatric illnesses part one—identification and management

Overview This Continuing Professional Development (CPD) module will focus on the identification and management of common paediatric illnesses, their history, epidemiology, key signs and symptoms, transmission, complications and specific treatments. This module will also present the current list of notifiable diseases in the UK. Learning Outcomes After completing this module you will be able to: • Identify and describe some common minor paediatric illnesses presenting in the pre-hospital setting. • Outline the treatment and management for minor paediatric illnesses. • Emphasise common and specific complications arising from minor paediatric illnesses. • Identify the key notifiable infectious diseases in the UK.

Continuing Professional Development: Common paediatric illnesses part one—identification and management

Overview This Continuing Professional Development (CPD) module will focus on the identification and management of common paediatric illnesses, their history, epidemiology, key signs and symptoms, transmission, complications and specific treatments. This module will also present the current list of notifiable diseases in the UK.

Tick-borne encephalitis: A disease neglected by travel medicine

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a vector-borne disease that is primarily transmitted to humans by infected ticks and causes infection of the central nervous system. Clinical presentations range from meningitis to encephalitis with or without myelitis, and infection may result in death or long-term neurological sequelae. TBE is endemic in regions of at least 27 European as well as in some Asian countries. Infection and disease, however, can be averted successfully by tick-bite prevention and active vaccination. The risk of infection has shifted from daily life and occupational exposure to leisure-time activities, including travelling. Outdoor activities during the tick season with contact with nature increase the risk of tick bites. Although the number of travel-associated cases is unknown, it is certainly under-estimated because there is hardly any awareness of TBE in non-endemic countries. Therefore, the majority of cases remain undiagnosed, also because of the lack of diagnostic serology, as there is no routine screening for TBE in non-endemic regions. Because of the increasing number of travellers from TBE non-endemic to endemic regions, and in view of the fact that TBE was included in the list of notifiable diseases in the European Union in September 2012, this disease needs to become an important issue in travel medicine.

Diagnosing rashes, part 4: Generalized rashes with fever

Practice NursingVol. 24, No. 7 DermatologyDiagnosing rashes, part 4: Generalized rashes with feverJean WatkinsJean WatkinsSearch for more papers by this authorJean WatkinsPublished Online:29 Sep 2013https://doi.org/10.12968/pnur.2013.24.7.335AboutSectionsView articleView Full TextPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail View articleReferencesChen S (2011) Measles, http://tinyurl.com/d8wrhzs (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarChiang N, Verbov J; British Association of Dermatologists (2009) Dermatology: A handbook for medical students and junior doctors, http://tinyurl.com/bpoatm4 (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarDermNet NZ (2011) Meningococcal disease, http://tinyurl.com/karg49a (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarGP Notebook (2013) Antistreptolysin O titre. http://tinyurl.com/m6ezmqk (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarHealth Protection Agency (2010a) List of notifiable diseases, http://tinyurl.com/ccnkn48 (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarHealth Protection Agency (2010b) Guidance on infection control in schools and other childcare settings. http://tinyurl.com/7abl364 (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarLombardo P (2011) Dermatological manifestations of rubella, http://tinyurl.com/n8xmkqt (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarMeningitis Trust (2013) Meningitis B vaccine now one step closer. http://tinyurl.com/lvmtdjp (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarOakley A (2012) Nonspecific viral exanthems. http://tinyurl.com/6stuql6 (accessed 3 June 2013) Google ScholarPapadopoulos A (2012) Chickenpox. http://tinyurl.com/mnl8m7p (accessed 3 June 2013) White S (2013) Roseola infantum. http://tinyurl.com/n88dxue (accessed 3 June 2013) Google Scholar FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails 1 July 2013Volume 24Issue 7ISSN (print): 0964-9271ISSN (online): 2052-2940 Metrics Downloaded 14 times History Received 3 June 2013 Accepted 25 June 2013 Published online 29 September 2013 Published in print 1 July 2013 Information© MA Healthcare LimitedKeywordsGeneralized rashesfeverinfectious illnessessymptomsdiagnosisPDF download

Development and validation of a quantitative real-time polymerase chain assay for universal detection of the White Spot Syndrome Virus in marine crustaceans

BackgroundThe White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), the sole member of the family Whispoviridae, is the etiological agent that causes severe mortality events in wild and farmed shrimp globally. Given its adverse effects, the WSSV has been included in the list of notifiable diseases of the Office of International Epizootic (OIE) since 1997. To date there are no known therapeutic treatments available against this lethal virus, and a surveillance program in brood-stock and larvae, based on appropriate diagnostic tests, has been strongly recommended. However, some currently used procedures intended for diagnosis of WSSV may be particularly susceptible to generate spurious results harmfully impacting the shrimp farming industry.MethodsIn this study, a sensitive one-step SYBR green-based real-time PCR (qPCR) for the detection and quantitation of WSSV was developed. The method was tested against several WSSV infected crustacean species and on samples that were previously diagnosed as being positive for WSSV from different geographical locations.ResultsA universal primer set for targeting the WSSV VP28 gene was designed. This method demonstrated its specificity and sensitivity for detection of WSSV, with detection limits of 12 copies per sample, comparable with the results obtained by other protocols. Furthermore, the primers designed in the present study were shown to exclusively amplify the targeted WSSV VP28 fragment, and successfully detected the virus in different samples regardless of their geographical origin. In addition, the presence of WSSV in several species of crustaceans, including both naturally and experimentally infected, were successfully detected by this method.ConclusionThe designed qPCR assay here is highly specific and displayed high sensitivity. Furthermore, this assay is universal as it allows the detection of WSSV from different geographic locations and in several crustacean species that may serve as potential vectors. Clearly, in many low-income import-dependent nations, where the growth of shrimp farming industries has been impressive, there is a demand for cost-effective diagnostic tools. This study may become an alternative molecular tool for a less expensive, rapid and efficient detection of WSSV.

Species-specific diagnostic assays for Bonamia ostreae and B. exitiosa in European flat oyster Ostrea edulis: conventional, real-time and multiplex PCR

Bonamia ostreae and B. exitiosa have caused mass mortalities of various oyster species around the world and co-occur in some European areas. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has included infections with both species in the list of notifiable diseases. However, official methods for species-specific diagnosis of either parasite have certain limitations. In this study, new species-specific conventional PCR (cPCR) and real-time PCR techniques were developed to diagnose each parasite species. Moreover, a multiplex PCR method was designed to detect both parasites in a single assay. The analytical sensitivity and specificity of each new method were evaluated. These new procedures were compared with 2 OIE-recommended methods, viz. standard histology and PCR-RFLP. The new procedures showed higher sensitivity than the OIE recommended ones for the diagnosis of both species. The sensitivity of tests with the new primers was higher using oyster gills and gonad tissue, rather than gills alone. The lack of a 'gold standard' prevented accurate estimation of sensitivity and specificity of the new methods. The implementation of statistical tools (maximum likelihood method) for the comparison of the diagnostic tests showed the possibility of false positives with the new procedures, although the absence of a gold standard precluded certainty. Nevertheless, all procedures showed negative results when used for the analysis of oysters from a Bonamia-free area.

Prevalencia de leptospirosis en adultos Chile, 2003

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis endemic in some regions in Chile. Since its inclusion into the list of notifiable diseases, the Chilean Ministry of Health was able to maintain an adequate surveillance of leptospirosis. Nonetheless, some cases are not reported due to subclinical disease or nonspecific symptoms. Determine the national prevalence of leptospirosis and assess the epidemiological characteristics of seropositive individuals. Secondary data analysis of the National Health Survey, 2003. National prevalence was 0.4%. Low socioeconomical status and female gender were characteristics, which were more frequently found in sero-positive cases. The most common serovars were icterohaemorrhagiae, bratislava and pomona. We present the first epidemiological analysis of leptospirosis on a national level in Chile. Thus, the study contributes to the knowledge the epidemiological situation of this disease in Chile.

Emergence of West Nile virus infections in humans in Turkey, 2010 to 2011

In 2010, 47 human cases of West Nile virus (WNV)infection, including 12 laboratory-confirmed and 35 probable cases, were identified in Turkey. These were the first cases detected during routine surveillance.The patients were from 15 provinces, mainly located in the western part of the country. Incidence was 0.19/100,000 with a maximum of 1.39 in Sakarya province.Forty of the total 47 cases showed neuroinvasive manifestation. Median age was 58 years with a range of four to 86. Ten of the patients died. Enhanced surveillance in humans and animals and mosquito control measures were implemented. The WNV infections were included in the national notifiable diseases list as of April 2011. In 2011, three probable and two confirmed cases of WNV infection were diagnosed in provinces where infections had been detected in the previous year, supporting a lower activity than 2010. However,detection of WNV infections in humans in 2010 and 2011 consecutively, may indicate that WNV has become endemic in the western part of Turkey. Field epidemiological studies were undertaken to understand more about the nature of infection in Turkey.

Salmonella entericain Pinnipeds, Chile

To the Editor: Several wildlife-associated zoonotic agents have played a major role in the emergence of diseases in humans (1). However, diseases can also emerge in wildlife as a result of human activities, such as contamination of the marine environment and its fauna by the disposal of nontreated human sewage. Salmonella enterica is among the agents identified as causing infection in various marine birds and mammals, including pinnipeds, from different geographic regions (2–4). The objective of our study was to determine whether S. enterica infection occurs in pinnipeds from the Chilean coast. During August–December 2010, we obtained samples from 13 South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) that the sanitary authority found malnourished and stranded at the northern Chilean beaches of Antofagasta (23°40′S; 70°24′W) and Los Vilos (31°54′S; 71°30′W) (Table). The pinnipeds showed no clinical signs or symptoms of disease; however, rectal swab samples were obtained during their stay for rehabilitation at the Buin Marino facilities (Santiago, Chile). After the animals recovered, they were released to their original habitat. Table Characteristics of South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) tested for infection with Salmonella spp., Chilean coast, August–December 2010* The swab samples were placed in Cary-Blair transport medium (COPAN, Murrieta, CA, USA) for shipment to the laboratory (Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, University of Chile, Santiago). To isolate bacteria, we placed the swab samples into 5 mL of buffered peptone water (Difco APT broth; Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA), incubated them for 24 h at 42°C with agitation, and then aliquots of the suspension were transferred into the following media: modified semisolid Rappaport-Vassiliadis basal medium (Oxoid, Sao Paulo, Brazil) with novobiocin (20 µg/mL), selenite cysteine broth base (Oxoid), and xylose lysine desoxycholate agar (Difco XLD; Becton Dickinson). After the aliquots were incubated at 37°C for 24–48 h, we identified suspected colonies by using biochemical tests and invA gene detection by PCR (5). Results showed that 2 of the 13 animals were infected with S. enterica strains, which were serotyped as S. enterica serotype Newport and S. enterica serotype Havana (Table), according to the Kauffmann-White scheme (6). Testing showed that the strains were susceptible to the following antimicrobial drugs: ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, ciprofloxacin, ceftazidime, and cefoxitin (7). Our results confirm S. enterica infection in pinnipeds from Chile and, more broadly, the South American coast and contrast with previous unsuccessful attempts to detect Salmonella spp. in pinnipeds from Valdivia, 2,200 km to the south (8). This finding suggests geographic variability in the epidemiology of infection; however, this possibility must be confirmed in additional studies with more samples and additional regions. S. enterica is an endemic bacterium in Chile that causes infection in humans and domestic animals. The Chilean sanitary authority includes S. enterica infection among the list of notifiable diseases, but surveillance is not conducted for S. enterica in wildlife. However, consideration should be given to changing this situation, given a report suggesting S. enterica as a priority for active surveillance (9). In addition, S. enterica serotypes Newport and Havana have been detected in Chile’s human population (10), strengthening the necessity for official support for initiatives addressing the need to elucidate the epidemiology of Salmonella in aquatic animals.

Survey of Management Practices in Indiana Dairy Farms Related to Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Control

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a Pestivirus from the Flaviridae family. Several countries from the European Union have included BVDV as part of their list of notifiable diseases. In the United States, several professional associations like the Academy of Veterinary Consultants and the American Association of Bovine Practitioners have called for the establishment of BVDV control programs and eventual eradication of BVDV in the US. Nevertheless, in order to establish suscessful control programs, we must address those particular management areas that represent a potential source of BVDV infection to the farms. This will assist herd owners and veterinarians being more efficient in their efforts.