Liquid Whole Egg Research Articles

Effect of gamma irradiation and thermal pasteurisation on functional quality of liquid whole egg

The present study aimed to assess the effect of gamma irradiation and thermal pasteurisation on the functional quality of liquid whole egg. Three separate liquid whole egg (LWE) homogenate samples were used in the study: Control untreated LWE (C), gamma irradiated at a previously validated pasteurisation dose of 3kGy, and thermally pasteurised at a core temperature of 60±1°C for 3.5 min (T). Samples were analysed for their functional properties on the day of pasteurisation.The foaming capacity and foaming stability were significantly (p<0.05) higher, whereas the viscosity was significantly (p<0.05) lower for G when compared to C and T. The emulsifying capacity of G was significantly (p<0.05) lower than C, whereas emulsifying stability of G did not differ significantly from C. According to the findings of this study, subjecting the LWE to gamma irradiation at 3kGy, showed no alterations in emulsifying capacity whereas foaming capacity and foaming stability was improved, when compared to the untreated control (C). The G showed lower viscosity and emulsifying stability Keywords: Liquid whole egg, cold pasteurised, thermally pasteurised, functional properties

Exploring the egg-mediated-enhancement mechanism against the autoclaving-induced textural deterioration of instant wet noodles

To improve the eating quality of instant wet noodles sterilized via autoclaving, liquid whole egg (LWE) was used as a reinforcer in the noodle recipe and its enhancement mechanism was evaluated. The results revealed that autoclaving significantly decreased the tensile distances of noodles (p < 0.05). The extent of textural deterioration increased with increasing autoclaving temperature. However, the addition of LWE compensated this deterioration. Moreover, LWE inhibited protein unfolding during autoclaving by crosslinking egg proteins with gliadin. The chemical interaction results revealed that the concentration of disulfide bonds increased from 48.95 to 94.96 μmol/g when 20 g/100 g LWE was added to the noodle recipe accompanied by a high proportion of stable conformations (gauche−gauche−gauche), which were transformed to a less stable conformation with increasing autoclaving temperature. A higher concentration of disulfide bonds and stable conformations in instant wet noodles made with LWE inhibited the unfolding of the gluten structure upon autoclaving, stabilizing the secondary structure and contributing to a more compact network upon autoclaving.

Life cycle assessment of the manothermosonication of liquid whole egg: a comparative evaluation with conventional thermal preservation

Manothermosonication (MTS) is a promising alternative to thermal preservation of liquid whole egg (LWE) in terms of safety level and improved quality. However, energy and sustainability assessment of MTS are not well described. This study compared the energy balance and life cycle assessment (LCA) of MTS to traditional thermal preservation of LWE, considering equivalent microbial inactivation levels and a production capacity of 100 kg/h within a "gate to gate" approach.Results of the energy assessment indicated that MTS preservation consumed 15% less energy (2.00 kWh/kg of LWE) and water compared to thermal preservation (2.36 kWh/kg of LWE). This reduction is attributable to cavitation, the mechanism of action in MTS, which eliminates the need of pre-homogenisation stage and water for heating. Concerning the environmental impact, MTS scored lower in all impact indicators, mainly due to reduced electricity and water usage. For instance, carbon footprint of CO2 emissions from LWE processing were 57.3% for MTS and 61.8% for thermal preservation, with the environmental impact of the pasteurisation stage being 4.1-fold lower in MTS. This study suggests MTS preservation of LWE is a viable alternative to thermal methods, offering safety, quality, and improved energy and environmental benefits.

In-pack radio frequency heating of liquid whole egg: Effect of agitation on heating rate and uniformity

In-pack radio frequency (RF) heating of liquid whole egg (LWE) was performed using a 27.12 MHz parallel-plate radio frequency (RF) system. To do this, 600 mL of LWE was subjected to RF heating in a RF-transparent plastic bag (140 mm×180 mm). Experiments were conducted at two different electrode gap settings (98 and 103 mm) with and without orbital movement in the horizontal plane. The effect of agitation on heating rate and uniformity was investigated for varying rpm’s (120 and 140 rpm) for a constant orbit diameter (35 mm). An orbital shaker was specially designed and coupled with the RF system for this purpose. Fiber optic probes were used to continuously measure the temperature of LWE at four different internal locations. Temperature uniformity index (TUI) was calculated to evaluate the uniformity of heating. Coagulation of LWE around the headspace was inevitable when the package was stationary during the treatment. Agitation brought about by orbital movement prevented the coagulation. Drastic improvement in heating rate and uniformity was observed upon orbital movement of LWE at all conditions.

Manothermosonication – A potential alternative to thermal pasteurisation of liquid whole egg: Comparison of physico-chemical attributes

Liquid egg products are typically exposed to a defined thermal load to achieve the required safety level, under which their functional properties can be adversely affected. In this study, manothermosonication (MTS) (132 μm, 300 kPa) was investigated as alternative preservation for liquid whole egg (LWE) compared to thermal pasteurisation (60 °C, 3.5 min), assessing results against untreated (fresh) LWE in terms of selected physico-chemical properties. Results showed that MTS resulted in improved LWE foaming properties, increasing foam capacity by a 3.2-fold factor compared to thermal treatment. Emulsion stability was also enhanced after MTS, exhibiting smaller droplet size, and a higher elasticity of gels was obtained. Regarding the protein properties, favourable protein changes (protein unfolding) were identified for MTS through direct (asymmetric flow field flow fractionation) and indirect (surface hydrophobicity and sulfhydryl group content) measurements. In addition, an increase in protein solubility of 11.4 % was observed in MTS compared to thermal treatment.

Effect of Whole Egg Liquid on Physicochemical, Quality, Fermentation and Sensory Characteristics of Yogurt.

With the purpose of developing an alternative set yogurt with high consumer acceptability, liquid whole egg (LWE), at levels that varied from 0 to 30%, was incorporated into set yogurt, and the effects on the physicochemical, quality, fermentation, and sensory characteristics of yogurt were evaluated. The fat content was lower in egg yogurt than in control yogurt. All color variables were significantly affected by LWE amount. The amount of bacteria in the egg yogurt was greater than in the control yogurt. Sensory analysis data suggested that color, odor, and texture consistently impacted the overall acceptability of the egg yogurt. The addition of 5% whole egg, which resulted in an increase of 6.28-fold in hardness, increase of 6.1-fold in viscosity, decrease in pH values, and a 5.6% decline in water-holding capacity (WHC). The aroma and flavor of the set yogurt was improved as well. LWE addition significantly increased the protein content and dynamic rheology. More importantly, the addition of LWE increased the protein content of the set yogurt. This investigation demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating LWE-enriched set yogurt and its superior quality compared with the corresponding normal product. It also emphasized the reconstruction of LWE with enhanced properties.

Continuous flow microwave processing of liquid whole egg: Pasteurization and functional characteristics evaluation

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of continuous flow microwave processing on the pasteurization efficiency and quality attributes of liquid whole egg (LWE). The heating section was accomplished using microwave, while the holding section utilized a water bath, and the process parameters were determined by a developed numerical model. The inactivation kinetics of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella Enteritidis were evaluated at three temperatures (56, 60 and 64 °C) and two power-density (8 and 16 W/mL with different flow rates). A 5-log10 reduction was achieved and the Weibull model fitting the survival data well, which contributed to the optimization of microwave pasteurization process. Additionally, microwave promoted the transitions of secondary structures from β-sheet to α-helix and stabilised the system by enhancing the zeta potential value, further improving the emulsifying and foaming properties. The major proteins in LWE were not found to undergo degradation according to the results obtained from SDS-PAGE analysis. The results of this study suggested that continuous flow microwave pasteurization of LWE exhibits potential as a viable alternative to conventional pasteurization methods. Industrial relevanceThe adoption of high-efficiency physical processing methods is imperative for the sustainable and low-carbon advancement of the food industry. This study confirmed the feasibility of continuous flow microwave pasteurization as an alternative to conventional methods for liquid whole egg, addressing key limitations encountered in traditional pasteurization approaches, and the findings offer practical insights for industrial-scale production. Additionally, the development and application of a continuous flow microwave heating system for pasteurizing liquid whole egg provide valuable knowledge for the utilization of microwave treatment in processing high-viscosity and heat-sensitive fluid foods.

Effect of nisin, EDTA, and abuse temperature on the growth of Salmonella Typhimurium in liquid whole egg during refrigerated storage

Salmonella spp. can be present in pasteurized liquid egg products because of its heat resistance or post-processing contamination, thereby representing a food safety risk. The effect of 1000 IU nisin/ml plus 20 mM disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), two refrigerated temperatures (7 °C and 10 °C), and two inoculation levels (103 and 105 cfu/ml) were studied in the growth of S. Typhimurium in pasteurized liquid whole egg (LWE). Two mathematical models were used to fit the microbial curves. Physicochemical characteristics of LWE, such as pH and color, were assessed for 31 days at the two storage temperatures, and no significant changes (p < 0.05) were observed for most of the samples. Results showed the significant impact of temperature on microbial growth. Samples kept at 7 °C showed the decay of microbial cells during storage; meanwhile, the effect at 10 °C was shown as fast growth. The combination of nisin plus EDTA and 7 °C accelerated the decay of microbial cells during the storage showing a synergistic effect. The Weibull model described the decline of cells during the shelf-life. Meanwhile, the logistic model fitted the growth of Salmonella in LWE at 10 °C. Adding these additives to LWE, combined with the correct temperature during pasteurization and adequate conditions during the cold chain, can minimize the food safety risk related to Salmonella.

Effects of Sequential Combination of Moderate Pressure and Ultrasound on Subsequent Thermal Pasteurization of Liquid Whole Egg.

As an alternative to commercial whole egg thermal pasteurization (TP), the sequential combination of moderate pressure (MP) and/or ultrasound (US) pre-treatments prior to a shorter TP was evaluated. The use of US alone or in combination with MP or TP resulted in an inactivation that was far from that of commercial TP. Nevertheless, when these three technologies were combined (MP-US-TP, 160 MPa/5 min-50% amplitude/1 min-60 °C/1.75 min), a safety level comparable to that of commercial TP was established. This was likely due to a decrease in the thermal resistance of Salmonella Senftenberg 775/W caused by MP and US pre-treatments. Regarding liquid whole egg (LWE) properties, using raw LWE as a reference, TP and MP treatments each decreased protein solubility (7-12%), which was accompanied by a viscosity increment (41-59%), whereas the US-only and MP-US-TP treatments improved protein solubility (about 4%) and reduced viscosity (about 34%). On average, all treatments lowered the emulsifying properties of LWE by 35-63%, with the MP-US-TP treatment having a more dramatic impact than commercial TP. In addition, the US-only, MP-only, and MP-US-TP treatments had the greatest impact on the volatile profile of LWE, lowering the concentration of the total volatile components. In comparison to commercial TP, LWE treated with MP-US-TP exhibited greater protein solubility (19%), lower viscosity (56%), and comparable emulsifying stability, but with a decreased emulsifying capacity (39%) and a lower total volatile compounds content (77%). Considering that a combined treatment (MP-US-TP) is lethally equivalent to commercial TP, but the latter better retained the quality properties of raw LWE, including volatiles, the application of MP followed by US pre-treatments before a shorter TP did not demonstrate significant advantages on quality parameters in comparison to commercial TP.

Effects of Heating Treatment on Functional and Structural Properties of Liquid Whole Egg

Liquid whole egg (LWE) products have many advantages such as convenient transportation, easy production and are safe. However, LWE has a short shelf life and high thermal sensitivity, so suitable heating treatment is the key to the production of LWE products. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of heating treatments conditions (at 55-67 °C for 0-10 min) on the emulsification, foaming activity and rheological properties of LWE. The results indicated that the emulsifying activity of LWE had no significant change after 55-64 °C heating treatment, while it decreased significantly after heating treatment at 67 °C. The foaming property of LWE increased significantly after 55 °C to the 64 °C heating treatment; while the foaming property showed a downward trend with the increase in heat treatment temperature, it can significantly improve the foam stability of LWE. The heating treatment thoroughly changed the molecular weight distribution of LWE protein, thus promoted the protein surface hydrophobicity, hydrophobicity activity and rheological properties. The heating treatment at 61 °C for 6 min had a better effect on the functional properties than that of the other heating groups. In addition, the results of this study provide the change in rules of LWE under different heating treatment conditions and provide theoretical guidance for the production and processing of LWE.

Analyses of Chemical and Physical Egg Quality Parameters of Laying Hens Housed in Different Conditions in Turkey

The aim of the present study is to determine the content of chemical and physical quality parameters of hen eggs (liquid whole egg (LWE), liquid egg yolk (LEY), and liquid egg white (LEW)) produced for different housing and feeding conditions in Turkey. Chemical quality parameters (protein, lipid, and moisture) and physical quality parameters (total soluble solid (°Brix), pH, conductivity, and yolk:white ratio) were analyzed using different egg samples. Kjeldahl, wet ashing, and oven-drying official methods were used for the protein, total lipid, and moisture analyses of egg samples. The highest protein content in the LEY and LEW samples were found to be 19.0% and 15.13%, respectively for the tenth sample having fortified feeding (selenium+DHA) parameters. For LWE samples, it was also obtained 15.65% with the second sample having a not fortified feeding parameter. The highest total lipid content for LWE samples was determined as 10.43% for the seventh sample which housed under cage free conditions and fed with organic (omega3+EPA+DHA) fortifiers, while it was found with a value 25.7% for the second and third LEY samples possessing a not fortified feeding parameters. The highest moisture content was determined as 78.37%, 54.64%, and 89.11 for thirty-first LWE sample (with not fortified feeding), third LEY sample (with not fortified feeding) and sixth LEW sample (having cage free and organic parameters), respectively. As a result, the minimum, average, and maximum contents of the chemical and physical quality parameters were determined for laying hen eggs raised in several housing and feeding conditions in Turkey.

Induction of viable but nonculturable Salmonella spp. in liquid eggs by mild heat and subsequent resuscitation

Salmonella spp. is one of the leading causes of foodborne outbreaks worldwide. Salmonella spp. has been associated with a variety of food sources, particularly egg products. They can enter a viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state in response to harsh stress. VBNC cells still retain membrane integrity and metabolic activity, which may pose health risks. However, the formation mechanism and resuscitation ability of VBNC cells are not well understood. In this work, Salmonella spp. cocktails, including Salmonella enterica serovar Newport and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, in liquid egg products was induced into a VBNC state by mild heat treatment, a commonly used method to inhibit the growth of pathogenic in liquid egg industry. Mild heat induced VBNC cells were found to resuscitate in liquid egg yolk (LEY) and liquid whole egg (LWE), but they failed to recover in liquid egg white (LEW). In addition, a certain number of cells remained as VBNC state after in vitro digestion. The membrane vesicle (MV) protein encoding gene pagC, two-component system encoding genes phoP/Q and sigma factor encoding gene rpoS were highly expressed in VBNC cells compared with the culturable counterparts. The results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of the health risks associated with Salmonella spp. in VBNC state and provide a theoretical basis for formation mechanism of VBNC state.

Effects of Glucose and Homogenization Treatment on the Quality of Liquid Whole Eggs.

To investigate the effect of glucose on the protein structure, physicochemical and processing properties of liquid whole eggs (LWE) under homogenization, different concentrations of glucose (0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08 g/mL) were added into LWE, followed by homogenizing at different pressures (5, 10, 20, 40 MPa), respectively. It was shown that the particle size and turbidity of LWE increased with the increase in glucose concentration while decreasing with the increase in homogenization pressure. The protein unfolding was increased at a low concentration of glucose combined with homogenization, indicating a 40.33 ± 5.57% and 165.72 ± 33.57% increase in the fluorescence intensity and surface hydrophobicity under the condition of 0.02 g/mL glucose at 20 MPa, respectively. Moreover, the remarkable increments in foaming capacity, emulsifying capacity, and gel hardness of 47.57 ± 5.1%, 66.79 ± 9.55%, and 52.11 ± 9.83% were recorded under the condition of 0.02 g/mL glucose at 20 MPa, 0.04 g/mL glucose at 20 MPa, and 0.02 g/mL glucose at 40 MPa, respectively. Reasonably, glucose could improve the processing properties of LWE under homogenization, and 0.02 g/mL–0.04 g/mL and 20–40 MPa were the optimal glucose concentration and homogenization pressure. This study could contribute to the production of high-performance and stable quality of LWE.

To improve the gel properties of liquid whole egg by short-term lactic acid bacteria fermentation

Fermentation, as a simple, safe and environmentally friendly technology, is promising in the modification of proteins. In this study, the liquid whole egg (LWE) was fermented at 37 °C by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 90 (L. plantarum 90) which the dose of inoculation was about 8 Log 10 CFU mL−1. During the process, the total aerobic mesophilic count (TAM) and the number of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) of LWE increased at 3 h and then decreased, consistent with the changes in protein solubility. Besides, the T2 relaxation time of fermented egg gels moved to low relaxation time (T22 shifted from 2154.44 ms (0 h) to 1232.85 ms (9 h)), indicating that the water retention of fermented egg gels was enhanced. After fermentation, it could be seen intuitively that the porous structure of the gel surface almost disappeared, along with the improved springiness and brightness by texture and color measurement. This study suggested that moderate fermentation (L. plantarum 90, 1% v/v, 9 h) could effectively improve the gel property of LWE, and thus had a potential to expand the application of LWE in the food industry.

Effect of L-calcium lactate, zinc lactate, and ferric sodium EDTA on the physicochemical and functional properties of liquid whole egg.

The study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and functional properties of liquid whole egg (LWE) with L-calcium lactate (L-Ca), zinc lactate (L-Zn), and sodium ferric EDTA (NaFeEDTA), and to compare with NaCl addition to determine the application potential of these mineral supplements. Results showed that salts addition significantly influenced the foaming, emulsifying, and gelling properties of LWE, which was possible through affecting the pH, particle size, surface hydrophobicity, apparent viscosity, and solubility. The addition of all the four salts reduced pH but increased the d4,3 diameter of LWE. Additionally, the addition of 200mM L-Ca and 6mM L-Zn significantly improved the emulsifying capacity by 41.73% and 13.6%, the foaming capacity by 26.57% and 10%, and the protein solubility by 13.89% and 12.70%, respectively. In the meantime, mineral supplements tend to produce lower hardness gel, especially with 25mML-Ca and 8mM L-Zn, and the hardness was decreased from 2401.13 to 1138.29 and 1175.59g, respectively. A relative decrease in hardness was desirable in gelled egg products. Moreover, the addition of NaCl and L-Ca showed a higher redness and yellowness, but the addition of NaFeEDTA showed an undesirable color in dark brown, which may be not accepted by the public. In summary, L-Ca and L-Zn had great potential for application in LWE, which was more appropriate than adding NaCl. This study provides a basis for improving the functional properties of LWE products in the future. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The addition of L-Ca and L-Zn to liquid whole egg (LWE) could improve the foaming and emulsifying capacity of LWE as well as produce a lower hardness gel, which may be more conducive to the production of cake, custards, and meat products. Meantime, it is more in line with people's pursuit of a healthy diet.

The Effect of Concentrated Microwave Field (CMF) on Selected Physical and Rheological Properties of Liquid Egg Products

Concentrated microwave field (CMF) is the technology for preserving liquid food products, where the preservation factor is both a nonthermal effect and a moderate thermal effect. The term “concentrated microwave field” is traditionally used in Poland and is the equivalent to “single-mode-type microwave heating”. The aim of the research was to determine selected physical and rheological properties of liquid egg white, liquid yolk and liquid whole eggs (LWE) after CMF treatment. It was found that both the amount of energy supplied to the system and the intervals between CMF pulses had a statistically significant impact on the analyzed properties of liquid egg raw materials. In industrial practice, it would be recommended to use lower CMF treatment (at the level of 2.2–2.6 kJ) for the yolk, medium (3.2–3.6 kJ) for egg white and higher (4.0–4.4 kJ) for the liquid whole eggs. The “response surface” models presented in the paper may have a practical application in determining the influence of individual technological parameters on the final quality of various liquid food products.

Effects of HHP’s Holding Time on Proteins of Liquid Egg Products

Today’s consumers require food products with fresh, or fresh-like characteristics. Minimal processing technologies are indicated as technologies with a gentle impact on sensorial and techno-functional properties. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) is a widely used minimal technology considered as a cold pasteurization method in food preservation. The effect of applied pressure of HHP is well understood, but the holding time of HHP treatment is not extensively investigated in topic of proteins. One of the most important attribute of liquid egg products are the great foaming ability, foaming stability as well as emulsifying properties. These techno-functional properties are highly influenced by the protein structures of egg products. In our study, liquid egg products were pressurized at 400 MPa, for 1, 3, 5 7 and 10 minutes. The protein structures of liquid egg white (LEW), liquid egg yolk (LEY) and liquid whole egg (LWE) were investigated using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC).Our study pointed out that after HHP treatment at 400 MPa, for 10 minutes 12% decrease in denaturation enthalpy of LWE was observed. In LEY 30% decrease was detected after 10 minutes HHP treatment. The highest impact of HHP treatment (35% decrease in denaturation enthalpy) in LWE was noted. The changes in protein structures of liquid egg products were smaller, than the effects of higher pressure applied for preservation. In aspects of techno-functional properties applying a longer holding time is more favourable, than applying a higher pressure.

The inhibition of cell-free supernatants of several lactic acid bacteria on the selected psychrophilic spoilage bacteria in liquid whole egg

The short shelf-life of pasteurized liquid whole egg (LWE) has been a technical problem of the industry for a long time, and there was an urgent need to develop relevant methodologies for the control of spoilage bacteria. In this study, the spoilage potential of the selected strains at low temperature and the inhibition of cell-free supernatant (CFS) of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on the representative strains with strong spoilage ability was both investigated. The results showed that some high abundance strains such as Pseudomonas and Microbacterium had the strong spoilage ability which might dominate the spoilage of liquid egg products. Meanwhile, the CFS of the selected LAB had a good inhibitory effect on them, and the result was: CFS of Lactobacillus plantarum 90 > CFS of Lactobacillus rhamnosus 05 > CFS of Pediococcus pentosaceus L28-8. Also, the CFS of L. plantarum 90 had a good bacteriostatic effect on the selected representative spoilage bacteria in LWE in a dose-dependent manner. Combined with the experimental results, it is speculated that this was the result of synergistic action of many bacteriostatic substances such as organic acids and bacteriocins. Overall, this study provides a possibility for the application of CFS of LAB in pasteurized liquid egg products to extend the shelf-life.

Study of high pressure carbon dioxide on the physicochemical, interfacial and rheological properties of liquid whole egg

In this research, the impact of High Pressure Carbon Dioxide (HPCD) on the physicochemical, interfacial and rheological properties of liquid whole egg (LWE) was investigated. HPCD treatment increased the solubility, free sulfhydryl groups and surface hydrophobicity of LWE. The highest foaming ability (186%) and foaming stability (72%) were obtained at 60 min of HPCD treatment, which were 1.3-fold and 1.4-fold those of the control group (147% and 51%, respectively). Compared with the control group, the LWE emulsion had a minimum particle size (16.3 μm) when the treatment time was 75 min, and the highest absolute value of zeta potential reached 7.66 mV when the processing time was 60 min. HPCD treatment decreased the apparent viscosity of LWE at a low shear rate. Dynamic viscoelastic characteristics indicated that both the G’ and G’’ moduli of LWE under the HPCD process were lower than those of the control group at any frequency.

HHP treatment of liquid egg products

High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) is one of the most promising minimal processing technologies in food preservation. HHP decreases microbiological spoilage of products and extend shelf life, while freshly-like properties are retained. For controlling microbiological safety of liquid whole egg (LWE), liquid egg white (LEW), liquid egg yolk (LEY) several preservation methods are viable in industry, but most of these apply heat or preservatives. On the one hand high temperatures are effective, but techno-functional properties could be declined, on the other hand the use of preservatives is rejected by consumers. In our study liquid egg samples are treated between 150 and 600 MPa, for 5 min. After treatments rheological properties and protein structures of samples were investigated. In evaluation of rheological results, Herschel-Bulkley model was fitted. Relevant changes in values of Herschel-Bulky models were observed above 450 MPa. LWE after HHP treatment had a stronger pseudoplastic behaviour. Summarizing our data, using a higher pressure for preservation of LWE may have bad influence on techno-functional properties. But the border pressure for adequate techno-functional properties may differ depending on final use of LWE.