Liquid Portion Research Articles

The Patent Map of a Measuring Cup

People use measuring cups to measure the required portion of liquid when making bread. Traditional measuring cups have indicia marked on the side such that they are difficult to read when the user is unable to bend his or her body or hold the cup firmly in the hand. However, the OXO measuring cup overcomes this problem by having at least one ramp formed radially inward on the inside surface of the measuring cup. The indicia on the upward surface of the ramp allow the user to look downward into the measuring cup, thereby eliminating the need to look horizontally at the cup at eye level. The design is shown in patent US6263732. This article carries out a further analysis of this invention by tracing its forward and backward citations to build a simple patent map of technology development of the measuring cup. Three patents, namely US4073192, US4566509, and US5588747, are chosen from 16 backward citations, while another three patents, namely US7306120, US8517219, and US9354098, are chosen from 25 forward citations. The analysis of these three backward citation patents shows that although various functions such as adjustable volume, thermometer, and so on can be added to the measuring cup, no measuring cup has ever discussed the issue of easy visibility as the OXO measuring cup does. In addition, three forward citations show that various methods have been invented to meet the need for easy visibility by using different structures such as a ramp or ladders. It is clear from the analysis that inventive principles 17, another dimension, and 32, optical change, are applied in those inventions. A trend of surface segmentation (Mann, 2002) can be found from US6263732 to US9354098, where the ramp in US6263732 is a flat surface, whereas US9354098 uses a more advanced design in which the ramp is a 3D protrusion, allowing the reverse side of the measuring cup to be used to measure the quantity of fluid too.

Bisphenol A (BPA) in liquid portions of canned foods obtained from domestic and Asian markets in the United States

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a phenolic environmental estrogen that disrupts endocrine activity thereby increasing the risk of hormone-related health problems. The human population is highly exposed to BPA and food is believed to be a primary source of BPA exposure. The aim of this study was to test the sensitivity and specificity of a BPA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and to measure levels of BPA in supernatants obtained from various canned foods from different countries. The concentration of BPA was measured in supernatant from different types of canned soup and vegetable mixes produced by US companies and two companies each from three different Asian countries (Korea, Japan and China), which are available at markets in the USA. ELISA results were confirmed by LC/MS/MS and shown to be in agreement. Cross-reactivity tests demonstrated that BPA ELISA kit does not cross-react with other tested phenolic compounds. There was no significant difference of BPA levels in different types of soups from different US companies. However, levels of BPA in supernatants of canned vegetable mixes of a company in the USA were 200-fold lower than the levels in canned vegetable soups of the US companies. BPA levels varied greatly among canned foods among companies in various countries. Thus, this study validated the use of a simple ELISA assay to measure levels of BPA in supernatants of canned food, which would facilitate the routine monitoring of dietary exposure to BPA. Decreasing the consumption of BPA will lead to a reduction in the risk of adverse health effects.

Coeffect of Air Pollution Control Devices on Trace Element Emissions in an Ultralow Emission Coal-Fired Power Plant

In this study, distribution, partitioning concentration, balance rate, and removal efficiency of trace elements (TEs) in an ultralow emission coal-fired electric power plant (EPP) were investigated and evaluated. Results include determination of the TEs in flue gas, coal, fly ash, bottom ash, gypsum, limestone, makeup water, wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) wastewater, and wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP) wastewater. The results indicate that most of the TEs are distributed in the fly ash, with a smaller portion in the bottom ash. The concentration of TEs in the flue gas gradually decreases as the gas moves through the air pollution control devices (APCDs). Only a small amount of TEs is emitted from the stack (Be: 0.039 μg/m3, Cd: 0.019 μg/m3, Cr: 2.229 μg/m3, Ni: 0.350 μg/m3, Pb: 0.194 μg/m3, Sb: 0.017 μg/m3, Se: 0.307 μg/m3, and U: 0.029 μg/m3). The Se concentration in the liquid portion was high and thus significantly contributed to the material balance. The low-temperature economizer-electrost...

Fully‐Enclosed Metal Electrode‐Free Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Scavenging Vibrational Energy and Alternatively Powering Personal Electronics

Harvesting environmental energy is an effective and sustainable route for realizing self‐powered electronics. Here, a fully‐enclosed metal electrode‐free self‐adaptive triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) based on liquid–solid triboelectrification by using a PTFE cylinder partly full of water is reported by authors. The water‐based TENG delivers an open‐circuit voltage of 15 V and short‐circuit current of 0.3 μA, respectively, when being waggled airily. The output performances of the TENG under different liquid portions, water volumes, and shaking frequencies are investigated by coupling of simulations. With advantages of simplicity and adaptability, the TENG is worn on the human body readily. Under a casual walking and running, a water‐based TENG made of a mineral water bottle gets both output voltages of more than 5 V. Further, it is proved that our TENG serves as a sustainable power source to drive personal electronics by integrating with a capacitor. Given its desirable output performance and excellent adaptability, the water‐PTFE metal electrode‐free TENG provides a promising and feasible approach for harvesting diverse vibrational energies in a harsh environment and serve as an alternative power source for driving small electronics.

Modernization of continuous casting machines with the purpose of increasing of finished product quality

To prevent formation or suppress development of crystallization,shrink and liquating defects different methods of physical impact on setting melt are used. For technology selection in every case economy, efficiencyand ecological norms should be considered first of all.Methods of physical impact on crystallizable billet considered: electro-hydro impulse impact, gas-impulse stirring, modifier input, inoculator input, consumable coolers input, ultrasonic impact, “soft” reduction, electromagnetic stirring (EMS).Due to authors’ opinion, EMS of liquid portion of a CC billet is the most effective method ofactive impact on crystallization process of a CC billet directly during casting resulted in a guarantee possibility to control the process of structure formation. At present in world practice the EMS of liquid metal at CC machines became an integral part of advanced technology of high quality billets obtaining. The requirements increase to products qualityand development of effective methods and means of melts electromagnetic processing resulted in a requirement of obligatory EMS usage when producing products of high quality steels.It was shown, that for a number of CC bullet macrostructure defects, arising from crystallization process, shrinkage and liquating phenomena, which can not be eliminated completely even at optimal CC machinesdesign features and rational technology parameters of CC process, additional methods of physical impact on the liquid metal setting needed. The method to be used depends on the CC technology and existing CC machines equipment.

Thin film evaporative cooling system for high heat flux applications

One of the promising ways of removing large heat fluxes from the surface of heat-stressed elements of electronic devices is the use of evaporating thin layer of liquid film, moving under the action of the gas flow in a flat channel. In this work, a prototype of evaporative cooling system for high heat flux removal with forced circulation of liquid and gas coolants, capable to remove heat flux of up to 1 kW/cm2 and higher is presented. The peculiarity of the test section used in the present work is that the width of the channel is equal to the width of the heating element (1 cm). It was found that the configuration of the test section allows to get higher values of the heat flux compared with the case when the channel width is higher than the width of the heater, since in the latter case some portion of liquid is deviating from the heater due to the thermocapillary forces.

High temperature/pressure MAS-NMR for the study of dynamic processes in mixed phase systems

A new MAS-NMR rotor (the WHiMS rotor) has been developed which can reach pressures of 400 bar at 20 °C or 225 bar at 250 °C. These rotors are ideal for mixed phase systems such as a reaction using a solid catalyst with a liquid/supercritical solvent topped with high pressure gas in the head space. After solid and liquid portions of the sample are loaded, the rotor is capped with an o-ring equipped polymer bushing that snaps into a mating groove in the rotor. The bushings incorporate a check valve into the sealing mechanism which allows for pressurization without mechanical manipulation – they will allow gas to flow in but not out. This WHiMS rotor design has enabled experiments on a wide variety of biotic and abiotic mixed-phase systems. Geochemical systems have also been studied, for example, adsorption and confinement studies of supercritical methane/CO2 in clays and other minerals which display pressure dependent 13C chemical shifts. Example data from other mixed-phase chemical and microbial systems are reported. These include monitoring metabolite conversion of extremophilic bacteria found in subsurface systems at elevated pressures and real-time operando reactions in catalysis systems - with liquid-quality resolution for 1H and 13C NMR spectra.

Effect of red ginseng NaturalGEL on skin aging

BackgroundIn aged skin, degradation of collagen fibers, which occupy the majority of the extracellular matrix in the dermis, and changes of aquaporin 3 (AQP3) and skin constituents, such as hyaluronic acid and ceramide, cause wrinkles and decrease skin moisturization to contribute to dryness and lower elasticity skin. Red ginseng (RG) is used as a cosmetic and food material and is known to protect from UVB-induced cell death, increase skin hydration, prevent wrinkles, and have an antioxidative effect. But, in general, RG used as a material is the soluble liquid portion in the solvent, and the part that is not soluble in the solvent is discarded. Thus, we made the whole RG into microgranulation and dispersed in water to produce gel form for using entire RG, and it was named red ginseng NaturalGEL (RG NGEL). MethodsRG NGEL was investigated for matrix metalloproteinases inhibitory activity, induction of Type I collagen, AQP3, hyaluronan synthetase 2, serine palmitoyl transferase, ceramide synthase 3, and filaggrin expression and compared with RG water extract. ResultsRG NGEL reduced the levels of UV-induced matrix metalloproteinases and increased Type I collagen in human fibroblast cells and upregulated AQP3, hyaluronan synthetase 2, serine palmitoyl transferase, ceramide synthase 3, and filaggrin expressions in human keratinocytes compared with RG water extract. ConclusionRG NGEL has the potential as an effective reagent for antiaging cosmetics to improve wrinkle formation and skin hydration.

Preparation of anti-decay self-setting pastes of hydroxyapatite/collagen utilizing (3-glycidoxypropyl)trimethoxysilane

ABSTRACTThis article describes preparation of anti-decay self-setting pastes of hydroxyapatite/collagen (HAp/Col) utilizing (3-glycidoxypropyl)trimethoxysilane (GPTMS). The powder portion of the paste was ball-milled HAp/Col synthesized by the simultaneous titration method, and the liquid portion was GPTMS aqueous solution at a concentration of 0.1, 1.0 or 10 % in volume. The HAp/Col-GPTMS pastes were prepared by mixing the powder and liquid portions at powder/liquid (P/L) ratios ranging from 0.20 to 2.00 (g/cm3). The pastes with P/L ratios from 0.33 to 1.50 showed good handling properties, and their viscosities depended greatly on the P/L ratio. The lowest washout ratio was observed at a P/L ratio of 1.00 independent of the GPTMS concentration. Although cytocompatibilty tests showed that inhibition of cell proliferation depended on the elution amounts of GPTMS from the pastes, an animal test using porcine tibia demonstrated no harmful systemic or local symptoms, because the GPTMS concentration maintained acceptable levels for living tissues through dispersion with body fluid. The animal test also revealed that the paste was completely resorbed and substituted with newly formed bone after 12 weeks implantation. It was concluded based on these results that HAp/Col-GPTMS pastes are promising candidates for use as bioresorbable injectable pastes.

New model for heat transfer calculation during film condensation inside pipes

In this paper a new model is presented for heat transfer calculation during film condensation inside pipes. This new model has been verified by comparison with available experimental data of a total of 22 different fluids, including water, various refrigerants and organic substances, which condense inside horizontal, vertical and inclined tubes. The model is valid for a range of internal diameters ranging from 2 mm to 50 mm, reduced pressure values ranging from 0.0008 to 0.91, Pr values for the liquid portion of the condensate from 1 to 18, values of Reynolds number for the liquid portion between 68 and 84827, and for the portion of the steam between 900 and 594373, steam quality from 0.01 to 0.99 and mass flux rates in the ranges of 3–850 kg/(m2 s). The mean deviation found for the data analyzed for vertical and inclined tubes was 13.0%, while for the horizontal tube data the mean deviation was 11.8%. In all cases, the agreement of the proposed model for horizontal, vertical and inclined tubes is good enough to be considered satisfactory for practical design.

Surfactant-Enhanced Permanganate Oxidation on Mass-Flux Reduction and Mass Removal (MFR-MR) Relationship for Pool-Dominated TCE Source Zones in Heterogeneous Porous Media

Chlorinated solvents generally enter the subsurface as dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) and accumulation mostly occurs in aquifers as pool-dominated zones that can cause long-term aqueous phase groundwater contamination. In situ remediation of DNAPL source zones in such systems is crucial for protecting and/or restoring groundwater quality in these aquifer systems having significant groundwater potential. The objective of the project was to investigate the surfactant-enhanced permanganate oxidation efficacy for pool-dominated DNAPL source zones in heterogeneous aquifer media. A complementary objective of this study was to investigate the impact of nonuniform distribution of DNAPL source zones, surfactant-enhanced dissolution and surfactant-enhanced permanganate oxidation conditions on mass-flux reduction/mass-removal behavior relationships. A series of 2-D flow-cell tank experiments using various grain sizes silica sand and natural soil were conducted as part of this study. DNAPL trichloroethene (TCE) was used as a chlorinated solvent, and SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and KMnO4 (potassium permanganate) were used as anionic surfactant and oxidant (remediation agents), respectively. The results were compared with a water-flooding experiment to test the remediation effort. Although, high fractions of TCE source zones in the heterogeneous porous media were removed by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-enhanced flushing, TCE removal in this system exhibited an extended multi-step concentration elution behavior. This nonideal behavior was observed for both the water-flood and SDS-flushing experiments. The results emphasized that in the early stage, some portion of the organic liquid is hydraulically accessible (matrix) whereas the later stage of mass removal was controlled by the more poorly accessible mass (pool) associated with higher saturation zones. Our results also showed that the distribution and the emplacement of organic liquid and flow-field heterogeneity had a significant influence on remediation and removal for both flushing solution (SDS and water). It was postulated that when SDS/MnO4 was applied with sufficient dosage and provided enough contact time, pool-dominated source zones could be remediated more efficiently compared to surfactant flushing alone. As a result, the performance of technology depends on the site characteristics which are critical to characterize effective DNAPL remediation strategies for contaminated sites.

Formation of Sulforaphane and Iberin Products from Thai Cabbage Fermented by Myrosinase-Positive Bacteria.

Myrosinase-positive bacteria from local fermented foods and beverages in Thailand with the capacity to metabolize glucosinolate and produce isothiocyanates (ITCs) were isolated and used as selected strains for Thai cabbage fermentation. Enterobacter xiangfangensis 4A-2A3.1 (EX) from fermented fish and Enterococcus casseliflavus SB2X2 (EC) from fermented cabbage were the two highest ITC producers among seventeen strains identified by 16S rRNA technique. EC and EX were used to ferment Thai cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) containing glucoiberin, glucoraphanin and 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin at 430.5, 615.1 and 108.5 µmol/100 g DW, respectively for 3 days at 25 °C. Different amounts of iberin nitrile, iberin, sulforaphane and indole 3-acetonitrile were produced by spontaneous, EX- and EC-induced cabbage fermentations, and significantly higher ITCs were detected (p < 0.01) with increased antioxidant activities. Iberin and sulforaphane production in EX-induced treatment peaked on day 2 at 117.4 and 294.1 µmol/100 g DW, respectively, significantly higher than iberin at 51.7 µmol/100 g DW but not significantly higher than sulforaphane at 242.6 µmol/100 g DW in EC-induced treatment at day 2. Maximum health-promoting benefits from this functional food can be obtained from consumption of a liquid portion of the fermented cabbage with higher ITC level along with a solid portion.

Pasture Feeding Changes the Bovine Rumen and Milk Metabolome.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two pasture feeding systems—perennial ryegrass (GRS) and perennial ryegrass and white clover (CLV)—and an indoor total mixed ration (TMR) system on the (a) rumen microbiome; (b) rumen fluid and milk metabolome; and (c) to assess the potential to distinguish milk from different feeding systems by their respective metabolomes. Rumen fluid was collected from nine rumen cannulated cows under the different feeding systems in early, mid and late lactation, and raw milk samples were collected from ten non-cannulated cows in mid-lactation from each of the feeding systems. The microbiota present in rumen liquid and solid portions were analysed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, while 1H-NMR untargeted metabolomic analysis was performed on rumen fluid and raw milk samples. The rumen microbiota composition was not found to be significantly altered by any feeding system in this study, likely as a result of a shortened adaptation period (two weeks’ exposure time). In contrast, feeding system had a significant effect on both the rumen and milk metabolome. Increased concentrations of volatile fatty acids including acetic acid, an important source of energy for the cow, were detected in the rumen of TMR and CLV-fed cows. Pasture feeding resulted in significantly higher concentrations of isoacids in the rumen. The ruminal fluids of both CLV and GRS-fed cows were found to have increased concentrations of p-cresol, a product of microbiome metabolism. CLV feeding resulted in increased rumen concentrations of formate, a substrate compound for methanogenesis. The TMR feeding resulted in significantly higher rumen choline content, which contributes to animal health and milk production, and succinate, a product of carbohydrate metabolism. Milk and rumen-fluids were shown to have varying levels of dimethyl sulfone in each feeding system, which was found to be an important compound for distinguishing between the diets. CLV feeding resulted in increased concentrations of milk urea. Milk from pasture-based feeding systems was shown to have significantly higher concentrations of hippuric acid, a potential biomarker of pasture-derived milk. This study has demonstrated that 1H-NMR metabolomics coupled with multivariate analysis is capable of distinguishing both rumen-fluid and milk derived from cows on different feeding systems, specifically between indoor TMR and pasture-based diets used in this study.

Effect of domain subdivisions on alloy solidification

The sensible heat portion of thermal energy storage (TES) for concentrated solar power (CSP) can be achieved using off-eutectic materials. These materials have the advantage of storing in latent as well as sensible heat through a given temperature range. On the other hand, off-eutectic materials have the disadvantage of possibly experiencing segregation effects, most likely impairing their solidification. During solidification, macrosegregation can occur due to a number of possible causes such as density differences in the solid and liquid portions of the mixture/alloy, flows due to capillary forces, flows due to electromagnetic fields or forced stirring, etc. In some cases, macrosegregation can severely affect solidification. One possible means to limit this segregation is with porous media. In this study, the segregation of an off-eutectic material in a porous medium is studied. Pore sizes and porous medium thermal conductivity are varied, revealing the importance of various mechanisms affecting solidification. Smaller pore sizes and higher porous medium thermal conductivities are shown to improve segregation and solidification.

SIMULATION OF SLAG SKULL FORMATION ON THE WALL OF CCM MOLD

The processes of formation of the skull and liquid film between the mold and surface of the billet effect on quality indicators and stability of the continuous casting of steel. A number of theoretical studies devoted to the forecast of skull thickness and the film of liquid slag are known. However, these studies do not take into account the mutual influence of formation processes of skull and film, as well as formation of shell thickness of the billet. In this connection, the paper presents a mathematical model of interrelated thermal processes developed by the authors in the system of layers “copper wall of crystallizer – skull – film of liquid slag – crust of ingot”. The model makes it possible to predict the dynamics of formation of the thickness of the ingot crust, slag skull and the layer of liquid slag along the height of the mold and the length of liquid friction portion in it, depending on casting speed, temperature of casting steel and melting of the slag, thickness of the slab and working layer of the copper wall. The adequacy of the model to the object is determined by such parameters, as surface temperature of the billet, thickness of the crust, specific heat flux in the mold and temperature of the working wall. An example of application of the developed model is shown, in which the effect of casting speed on length of the liquid friction portion in the mold is investigated. It was found that at speeds of 0.8; 1.0 and 1.2 m/min the slag layer is retained for 0.331; 0.415 and 0.498 m from the meniscus of the metal, respectively. At the same time, the thickness of the skull reaches a maximum value of 0.77 mm. Further formation of the preform occurs in the absence of lubrication in the mold. The possibility of using the developed model by technologists for selecting the chemical composition of casting powder, which provides the required length of the liquid slag section, is indicated by the designers when choosing the mold profile, taking into account the thickness of the skull, and, also for educational purposes.

Experimental and numerical evaluation of slugs in a vertical air–water flow

Multiphase flows are often present in chemical processes and they include gas-liquid transport, which may become intermittent depending on the operating conditions. One type of flow structure is the presence of large gas bubbles that can occupy the entire duct diameter, separated by liquid portions. This can result in large pressure fluctuations, which are normally associated with damage to equipment over time. The intermittent nature and the chaotic distribution of the phases in a turbulent flow complicate the design and optimization of the equipment. In this context, computational fluid dynamics is a useful technique since it can provide important information on several flow conditions, but the use of suitable models and boundary conditions is required. In this study, an air and water flow with the presence of slugs is evaluated in a system consisting of horizontal and vertical ducts, with an inner diameter of 94 mm. Experimental data on the pressure and void fraction were analyzed and compared to the predictions obtained from numerical simulations, obtained considering the VOF approach. It was observed that the use of the geometrical reconstruction scheme to simulate a compressible flow resulted in a better agreement with the experimental results. Using this setup, the average volume fraction and pressure values showed the expected behavior. The frequency of slugs, established using three different methods, was around 1.5 Hz for the evaluated conditions evaluated. The pressure probability density function (PDF) indicated good agreement between numerical simulations and experimental data, while the volume fraction PDF indicated that the flows evaluated have the characteristics of a churn flow regime. Moreover, it was found that an increase in the water flow rate can lead an increase or a decrease in the average velocity.

Fate of bisphenol A, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonate in two different types of sewage treatment works in Hong Kong

This study aimed at investigating the removal efficiencies of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and bisphenol A (BPA) of two major sewage treatment works in Hong Kong: Stonecutters Island STW (SCISTW) which adopts chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) process and Sha Tin STW (STSTW) which employs biological treatment. Liquid portion (LP) and particulate matter (PM) of liquid sewage samples and sludge samples were collected and followed by liquid chromatograph system. It was found that BPA (44.6 ± 35.1%) generally achieved higher TRE than the two other chemicals (PFOS (−18.8 ± 34.8%) and PFOA (−104 ± 86.8%)) in STSTW (p < 0.05). Most of the PFOA, PFOS and BPA was discharged through final effluent (PFOA: 95.6 ± 1.00% and 94.5 ± 3.13%; PFOS: 77.7 ± 1.48% and 72.6 ± 6.07%; BPA: 99.2 ± 0.950% and 92.8 ± 7.25%, respectively) rather than stored in the sludge/cake (PFOA: 4.45 ± 1.00% and 5.47 ± 3.13%, PFOS: 22.3 ± 1.48% and 27.4 ± 6.07%, BPA: 0.844 ± 0.950% and 7.20 ± 7.25%, respectively). After the sewage purification process, the two STW released considerable amounts of PFOA, PFOS and BPA in the final effluent (PFOA: 0.638 ± 0.227 kg/year; PFOS: 0.409 ± 0.126 kg/year; BPA: 10.4 ± 3.83 kg/year in STSTW; PFOA: 3.08 ± 1.415 kg/year; PFOS: 2.13 ± 0.452 kg/year; BPA: 714 ± 768 kg/year in SCISTW) and in the sludge (PFOA: 0.0360 ± 0.0250 kg/year; PFOS: 0.149 ± 0.00100 kg/year; BPA: 1.09 ± 1.47 kg/year in STSTW; PFOA: 0.139 ± 0.0670 kg/year; PFOS: 0.606 ± 0.0780 kg/year; BPA: 3.05 ± 3.95 kg/year in SCISTW). This study may help to provide crucial information for further development of municipal sewage system in treating synthetic emerging chemicals.

Experimental study on heating type pressurization of liquid applicable to LNG fueled shipping

The present experimental study investigates the pressurization effect in a fluid storage tank injected with superheated vapor. The pressurizing system re-injects high-temperature forced boil-off gas (BOG), which is emitted after heating a portion of liquid with an external heater connected to the liquid storage tank, to pressurize the liquid. The experimental equipment comprises a vertical-type pressurizing tank having a volume of 8.2liter and a mini-vaporizer that utilizes the heater. NOVEC 649 refrigerant was used. A mathematical formulation, which can effectively predict pressure rise by considering the material and energy transfer at the interface, was suggested. The experimental results indicated that the pressurizing time reduces as the initial liquid filling ratio and heat input rate increase. It was found that the actual time required to reach the target pressure can be reduced by up to approximately 1/3 the time calculated from the homogeneous model. Without considering the heat transfer via the interface, the model results of pressure rise is approximately 10% higher than the experimental value.

Development of a food atlas for Sri Lankan adults

BackgroundObtaining reliable food portion size estimations in dietary surveys found to be a difficult task. A food atlas is a set of photograph series depicting different amounts of a particular food, usually bound together in a single volume that can be used to describe portion sizes. By this paper we aim to explain the methods used in developing a photographic food atlas for Sri Lankan adults and to discuss its usage, advantages and limitations.MethodsFoods that are commonly consumed in Sri Lanka were recognized by a local nutritional survey, market survey and interviewing nutrition experts. In obtaining food items, certain dishes were prepared according to a standard recipe book while other items were purchased from recognized restaurants and the local market. White color crockery or/with blue color board was used to present the food items and they were photographed by a professional photographer employing a camera setup recommended for food photography. Three types of photographs have been used to illustrate the food items; serial, range and guide. Mainly the serial photographs were taken using two cameras: one fixed at an angle of 5° to capture aerial views, and the other placed at an angle of 45° to represent the view of a person of average height, sitting at a table, looking at a plate on the table in front of him. The liquid portion series were photographed at an angle of 90° to get life-size images. The range and guide photographs were taken free hand so that all the items could be captured in the best way possible.ResultsA total of 125 foods that are commonly consumed by Sri Lankan adults were selected to be depicted in the atlas; serial photographs of increasing portion sizes (n = 88 foods); range photographs depicting a range of sizes/varieties of a particular food, (n = 11), and guide photographs which represent the brands/types of a certain food item/category available in the market (n = 26).ConclusionThe food atlas will be a valuable resource for dietary surveys in Sri Lanka as well as in other South Asian countries where similar foods are consumed.

Nutrient contributions and biogas potential of co-digestion of feedstocks and dairy manure

This study focused on collection of data on nutrient flow and biogas yield at a commercial anaerobic digester managed with dairy manure from a 1000 cow dairy and co-digestion of additional feedstocks. Feedstocks included: blood, fish, paper pulp, out of date beverages and grease trap waste. Mass flow of inputs and outputs, nutrient concentration of inputs and outputs, and biogas yield were obtained. It was determined that manure was the primary source of nutrients to the anaerobic digester when co-digested with feedstocks. The percentage of contribution from manure to the total nutrient inputs for total nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, phosphorus and total solids was 46.3%, 67.7%, 32.8% and 23.4%, respectively. On average, manure contributed the greatest amount of total nitrogen and ammonia-nitrogen. Grease trap waste contributed the greatest amount of phosphorus and total solids at approximately 50%. Results demonstrated that a reliable estimate of nutrient inflow could be obtained from the product of the nutrient analyses of a single daily composite of influent subsamples times the total daily flow estimated with an in-line flow meter. This approach to estimate total daily nutrient inflow would be more cost effective than testing and summing the contribution of individual feedstocks. Data collected after liquid-solid separation confirmed that the majority (>75%) of nutrients remain with the liquid effluent portion of the manure stream. It was demonstrated that the ash concentration in solids before and after composting could be used to estimate the mass balance of total solids during the compost process. This data confirms that biogas or methane yield could be accurately measured from the ratio of % volatile solids to % total solids.