Petroleum Gas Research Articles

Investigation of the Steam Injection Method Used to Reduce Emissions During Liquefied Petroleum Gas Combustion in an Atmospheric Burner

Investigation of the Steam Injection Method Used to Reduce Emissions During Liquefied Petroleum Gas Combustion in an Atmospheric Burner

Catalytic Cracking of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) to Light Olefins Using Zeolite-based Materials: Recent Advances, Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives.

The catalytic cracking of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has attracted significant attention due to its importance in producing valuable feedstocks for the petrochemical industry. This review provides an overview of recent developments in zeolite-based catalyst technology for converting LPG into light olefins. Catalytic cracking utilizes zeolite-based catalysts usually associated with stability challenges, such as coking and sintering. The discussion focused on the underlying mechanisms that govern the catalytic cracking process and provided insights into the complex reaction pathways involved. A comprehensive analysis of various strategies employed for improving the effectiveness of zeolite catalysts has been discussed in this review. These strategies encompass using transition metals to modify catalyst properties, treatments involving phosphorous modification, alkaline earth metals, and alkali metals to alter the acidity level of the zeolites. The elucidation of the impact of silica-to-alumina ratios in zeolites and the development of hierarchical zeolite-based catalysts through top-down and bottom-up methodologies are also discussed.

A dehydration membrane reactor towards highly efficient LPG synthesis via CO2 hydrogenation

In recent years, CO2 hydrogenation has garnered increasing attention as a promising avenue towards the conversion of captured CO2 to valuable liquid chemicals, including CH3OH, CH3OCH3, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG). However, chemical conversion of CO2 has proven to be immensely challenging, resulting in low CO2 conversion (<35 %) and product yields (<15 %). H2O, unavoidably evolved during CO2 hydrogenation, imposes both thermodynamic and kinetic penalties on CO2 hydrogenation reactions via adsorption on catalyst active sites and promotion of undesirable reaction pathways. In this work, to greatly facilitate direct conversion of CO2 to LPG over a bifunctional Cu/Zn/Zr on Al2O3 (CZZA)/Pd-β-zeolite catalyst, a dehydration membrane reactor (MR) featuring a H2O-conducting Na+-gated nanochannel membrane was studied. Before the incorporation of the Na+-gated membrane, the CZZA/Pd-β-zeolite was unable to produce LPG at 280–310 °C and 14 bar, and the CO2 conversion was limited to < 35 %. In stark contrast, the MR exhibited CO2 conversion and LPG yield of 72.1 % and 51.7 %, respectively. The operating conditions of the MR were systematically investigated to determine the maximum achievable performance resulting in CO2 conversion and LPG yield as high as 90.2 % and 60.5 %, respectively. Furthermore, the LPG space–time yield (STY) at the optimized conditions was near that of the best-performing traditional reactors (TRs) in the literature but at 3 times and 8 times increased CO2 conversion and time factor (W/F), respectively. The MR in this work demonstrates the synergistic efficacy of combined H2O removal and CH3OH consumption towards highly efficient hydrogenation of CO2 for LPG production.

Experimental Investigation and Chemical Kinetics Analysis of Carbon Dioxide Inhibition on Hydrogen-Enriched Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Explosions

The utilization of hydrogen-enriched liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is an effective means of reducing carbon emissions, but the special physical and chemical properties of hydrogen have raised concerns among the public. To delve into the intricate chemical kinetic mechanisms governing the inhibitory effect of CO2 on the explosion of hydrogen-enriched LPG, this study systematically investigated the influence of varying CO2 concentrations (3%, 6%, and 9%) on the explosion characteristics of hydrogen-enriched LPG (hydrogen ratio ranging from 0 to 0.5) within a 20 L spherical explosion chamber. Subsequently, a chemical kinetic analysis was conducted, focusing on the explosion reaction dynamics of the H2/LPG/CO2/Air mixture, encompassing temperature sensitivity assessments and the production rates of key free radicals. The findings reveal that although hydrogen incorporation does not significantly alter the maximum explosion pressure of LPG, it markedly accelerates the explosion reaction rate, posing a challenge for CO2 in effectively inhibiting the explosion of hydrogen-enriched LPG. CO2 functions as a stabilizing third body within the reaction system, diminishing the collision frequency among free radicals, hydrogen molecules, hydrocarbon molecules, and oxygen molecules, thereby slowing down the reaction rate. As the proportion of hydrogen increases, the concentration of ·H radicals, known for their high reactivity, escalates, rapidly completing the propagation phase of the chain reaction and intensifying the overall generation rates of critical free radicals, including ·H, ·O, and ·OH. Notably, the key reaction H+O2⇋O+OH, which governs the reaction temperature, undergoes significant enhancement, further accelerating the explosion reaction rate and ultimately diminishing the inhibitory efficacy of CO2 against the hydrogenated LPG explosion. Furthermore, as the amount of hydrogen added increases, hydrogen’s competitiveness for oxygen within the reaction system markedly improves, attenuating the oxidation of hydrocarbons. Concurrently, the alkane recombination reaction, exemplified by C3H6+CH3(+M)⇋sC4H9(+M), is strengthened. These insights provide valuable understanding of the complex interactions and mechanisms during the explosion of hydrogen-enriched LPG in the presence of CO2, with implications for the safe application of hydrogen-enriched LPG.

Adoption of clean energy cooking technologies in rural households: the role of women

Abstract Ensuring energy access for rural households is crucial for global sustainable development. Technologies like liquefied petroleum gas, biogas, and efficient cookers are touted as solutions, yet their adoption remains limited despite their potential health, economic, and environmental benefits. We conducted a meta-analysis of 50 studies in developing countries, integrating contextual factors to explore gender and other determinants impacting rural energy transition. Our findings underscore socioeconomic status, social capital, environmental concerns, and gender dynamics as pivotal factors. Notably, women's involvement boosts adoption rates by 7.90 per cent, yet cultural barriers often sideline them from these processes. Thus, our recommendations stress addressing women's roles as energy technology users to foster inclusive energy transitions.

Optimal Conversion of Food Packaging Waste to Liquid Fuel via Nonthermal Plasma Treatment: A Model-Centric Approach.

The efficiency of employing a multifactorial approach to enhance the nonthermal plasma (NTP) chemical conversion of solid waste food packaging materials into liquid petroleum hydrocarbons was assessed for the first time in this study. The researchers adopted a hybrid approach which integrated the zero-dimensional (0-D) and response surface model (RSM) techniques. After their application, the researchers noted that these strategies significantly enhanced the model prediction owing to their accurate electrochemical description. Here, the researchers solved a set of equations to identify the optimisation dynamics. They also established experimental circumstances to determine the quantitative correlation among all process variables contributing to food plastic packaging waste degradation and the production of liquid fuels. The findings of the study indicate a good agreement between the numerical and experimental values. It was also noted that the electrical variables of NTP significantly influenced the conversion yield (Yconv%) of solid plastic packaging waste to liquid hydrocarbons. Similarly, after analysing the data, it was seen that factors like the power discharge rate (x1 ), discharge interval (x2), power frequency (x3), and power intensity (x4) could significantly affect the product yield. After optimizing the variables, the researchers observed a maximal Yconv% of approximately 86%. The findings revealed that the proposed framework could effectively scale up the plasma synergistic pyrolysis technology for obtaining the highest Yconv% of solid packaging plastic wastes to produce an aromatics-enriched oil. The researchers subsequently employed the precision of the constructed framework to upgrade the laboratory-scale procedures to industrial-scale processes, which showed more than 95% efficiency. The extracted oil showed a calorific value of 43,570.5 J/g, indicating that the liquid hydrocarbons exhibited properties similar to commercial diesel.

Bifunctional Catalytic Performance of Zn/ZSM-5 in the Aromatization of LPG and the Conversion of Pyrolytic Gases from Recycled Polypropylene

Zn-modified ZSM-5 zeolites with different zinc contents were successfully prepared by the impregnation method and compared with unmodified ZSM-5. Their potential for LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) aromatization and the conversion of pyrolysis gases obtained from recycled polypropylene was subsequently evaluated. In this process, various characterization tests were performed on the prepared catalysts, including SEM-EDS (scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy), TPD-NH₃ (temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia), and FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy). Under optimized conditions, the best results were obtained with 2% Zn/ZSM-5, which generated a higher production of BTX (benzene, toluene, and xylene) isomers, which are major components of gasoline. Likewise, in catalytic pyrolysis of recycled polypropylene, this catalyst generated a higher production of aromatic compounds. Therefore, this catalyst showed excellent performance in generating valuable hydrocarbons of great industrial interest, particularly aromatics.

Determining Consumer Intention: Uncovering the Influential Factors in Customer Switching from LPG to Induction Stoves in Indonesia

The increasing electrification of lifestyles in Indonesia has prompted a shift in consumer preferences, particularly regarding kitchen appliances. Indonesia is currently facing an electricity oversupply issue, hence migrating consumers from traditional Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) stoves to induction stoves offers the potential to enhance electricity utilization and effectively address this predicament. This study aims to investigate the influential factors behind consumers' intentions to switch from traditional LPG stoves to induction stoves. The data were collected from 802 traditional LPG stoves consumers, who are Indonesian citizens, residing across various regions of Indonesia, and have not previously purchased an induction stove to achieve the objective. The collected data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings reveal the importance of Push, Pull, and Mooring factors in motivating consumers to switch from LPG stoves to induction stoves. This research contributes critical insights to academia, industry, and policymakers as well, offering a nuanced understanding of the dynamics influencing this transition in the Indonesian market and playing a pivotal role in addressing the electricity oversupply issue in Indonesia.

Assessment of a LPG hybrid solar dryer assisted with smart air circulation system for drying basil leaves

The fluctuation of solar radiation throughout the day presents a significant obstacle to the widespread adoption of solar dryers for the dehydration of agricultural products, particularly those that are sensitive to high temperatures, such as basil leaf drying during the winter season. Consequently, this recent study sought to address the limitations of solar-powered dryers by implementing a hybrid drying system that harnesses both solar energy and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Furthermore, an innovative automatic electronic unit was integrated to facilitate the circulation of air between the drying chamber and the ambient environment. Considering the solar radiation status in Egypt, an LPG hybrid solar dryer has been developed to be suitable for both sunny and cloudy weather conditions. This hybrid solar dryer (HSD) uses indirect forced convection and a controlled auxiliary heating system (LPG) to regulate both temperature and relative humidity, resulting in increased drying rates, reduced energy consumption, and the production of high-quality dried products. The HSD was tested and evaluated for drying basil leaves at three different temperatures of50, 55, and 60 °C and three air changing rates of 70, 80, and 90%, during both summer and winter sessions. The obtained results showed that drying basil at a temperature of 60 °C and an air changing rate of 90% led to a decrease in the drying time by about 35.71% and 35.56% in summer and winter, respectively, where summer drying took 135–210 min and winter drying took 145–225 min to reach equilibrium moisture content (MC). Additionally, the effective moisture diffusivity ranged from 5.25 to 9.06 × 10− 9 m2/s, where higher values of effective moisture diffusivity (EMD) were increased with increasing both drying temperatures and air change rates. Furthermore, the activation energy decreased from 16.557 to 25.182 kJ/mol to 1.945–15.366 kJ/mol for the winter and summer sessions, respectively. On the other hand, the analysis of thin-layer kinetic showed that the Modified Midilli II model has a higher coefficient of determination R2, the lowest χ2, and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) compared to the other models of both winter and summer sessions. Finally, the LPG hybrid solar dryer can be used for drying a wide range of agricultural products, and it is more efficient for drying medicinal plants. This innovative dryer utilizes a combination of LPG and solar energy, making it efficient and environmentally friendly.

Ultra-sensitive liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) sensor based on monometallic Ag nanospheres synthesized via microwave-assisted facile approach

We present the synthesis, analysis, and utility of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) stabilized monometallic silver nanospheres for liquefied petroleum gas sensing at room temperature. We have synthesised silver nanospheres (Ag-NSs) in the diameter range of 13–21 nm using a microwave assisted method, which is both easy and fast, because microwave irradiation only takes 30 s. A solution of 0.1 M silver nitrate (AgNO3) in an ethanolic medium was microwave-irradiated to produce Ag-NSs. PVP was used as a stabilising agent throughout the process. Spin coating method was used to produce thin films of synthesised monometallic Ag-NSs. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), acoustic particle sizer (APS), UV–visible absorption (UV–visible) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy were used for characterising Ag-NSs. Based on the acoustic attenuation of the prepared sample, the acoustic particle sizer estimated the diameter of Ag-NSs to be around 17 nm. The deposited films were examined for LPG leakage detection at ambient temperature. This is the first report on monometallic Ag-NSs for leakage detection of LPG at room temperature operation below its lower explosive limit (LEL). The significant finding of the developed sensor is that it prompts the quick response (∼16 s) and recovery (∼64 s) as Ag enhances the reaction rate between the sensing film surface and adsorbed LPG, thereby, augments the sensitivity of sensor even below LEL. Moreover, the fabricated LPG sensor shows noteworthy reproducibility (measured up to six cycles) and stability up to 06 months after fabrication.

Root causes analysis for improved containment integrity in LPG storage: A case study

AbstractA liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) storage system is a critical component designed for the storage of liquefied petroleum gas. LPG storage systems for hazardous materials require rigorous safety protocols to prevent catastrophic containment losses. However, complex interactions between equipment failure, human factors, and external events make prevention a persistent challenge. This study demonstrates the application of structured methods to systematically analyze, correct, and prevent loss of containment in LPG systems. In order to realize this, 8D methodology was used to analyze and solve the problem which included fault tree analysis (FTA) to identify the root causes. Additionally, the bow tie analysis (BTA) will be integrated into the analysis process to implement permanent mitigative actions and prevent the recurrence of similar issues in the future. As a result of this work, it was determined that by applying the proposed approach, the risk of undesired consequences was reduced compared to baseline levels. This study demonstrated the value of a structured suggested approach to improve containment integrity in high‐risk storage systems.

Long-Term Forecasting Models of Oil Demand Emerging from the Global Petrochemical Sector

In the global energy mix by 2040, the growth in demand for oil and gas will be predominantly driven by the petrochemical sector across all regions of the world. The strong performance of this industry is anticipated to necessitate additional volumes of key feedstocks. Therefore, understanding the demand dynamics within the petrochemical sector is crucial for policy makers and industry stakeholders to make informed decisions regarding economic diversification, economic planning, and environmental sustainability. However, there is a notable lack of existing literature that explicitly addresses comprehensive regional and product-level demand modeling for petrochemical feedstocks. In this context, this study aims to estimate the demand for four main petrochemical feedstocks (Naphtha, Ethane, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), and other petrochemical feedstocks) across eight regions of the world. By estimating a total of 30 equations for price and income elasticities of demand in both the short and long term, the study provides detailed insights into the factors driving demand across different regions. The results demonstrate the robustness of the model, with good econometric properties and significant coefficients. In-sample regional simulations revealed small percentage errors across all regional equations, highlighting the model’s accuracy in tracking historical data. For each of the four feedstocks, an aggregate world equation—in other words, one single econometric world equation for each of the four petrochemical feedstocks’ categories mentioned earlier—was also estimated and compared against the aggregation of the regional simulations, with the latter found to track the history of global petrochemical feedstock demand better in-sample than a single econometric world equation. Overall, the study offers valuable contributions to the existing literature by filling a gap in comprehensive demand modeling for petrochemical feedstocks. It underscores the importance of regional and product-level analyses in understanding global demand patterns and informing strategic decisions in the industry.

SISTEMA PARA DETECÇÃO DE VAZAMENTO DE GÁS

Gas poisoning, such as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), is responsible for around 19,000 deaths annually, due to its high flammability and toxic effects when inhaled in large quantities(Science Advances, 2024). In response to this, a prototype low-cost LPGgas detection system was developed, based on Arduino. The system uses sensors to identify leaks and trigger alerts via LEDs, buzzer, fan and relay, an LCD board and an android app that receives the data sent viaBluetooth to the owner. Tests have confirmed the system’s efficiency in detecting dangerous levels of gas, with positive results for residential and commercial safety.

Digital Transformation In The LPG Industry: Leveraging IoT And Data Analytics For Operational Efficiency

This study presents a comprehensive systematic review exploring the transformative impact of Internet of Things (IoT), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, and automation technologies on the operational efficiency of the Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) industry. Leveraging the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a rigorous review process was conducted to identify, screen, and synthesize existing research. A total of 90 high-quality articles were systematically reviewed to assess how digital technologies are revolutionizing key aspects of LPG operations, including inventory management, predictive maintenance, and fleet optimization. The findings reveal that integrating IoT and SCADA systems enhances real-time monitoring, significantly reduces manual errors, and improves accuracy in inventory tracking, leading to cost reductions of up to 30%. Moreover, predictive maintenance enabled by IoT data analytics was shown to decrease unplanned downtime by 40% and maintenance costs by 25%, further ensuring the reliability of equipment in this high-stakes industry. The review also highlights how automation and digitalization streamline logistics, optimize fuel usage, and improve customer satisfaction by reducing delivery lead times by 20%. Additionally, these technologies support sustainability goals by minimizing carbon emissions through optimized fleet management. By providing a detailed synthesis of current research, this review not only underscores the benefits of digital transformation in the LPG industry but also identifies gaps in the literature, suggesting avenues for future studies to enhance operational excellence, safety, and sustainability in this critical sector.

Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions from Euro 6d vehicles fueled by innovative LPG/DME blend

The aim of this research was to investigate the exhaust emissions from vehicles when fueled by a new and fully renewable fuel if made of bio-LPG and renewable dimethyl ether (DME), in comparison with standard gasoline. For this purpose, DME was mixed with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and used to fuel three bi-fuel LPG/gasoline spark-ignition engines light-duty vehicles. The suitable fuel blend was selected based on several octane tests using CFR engines. Exhaust emissions were tested over the WLTC and over the hot-start CADC cycles, as well as on the road. All Euro 6 standards were well fully met over the WLTC with both fuels. Switching from gasoline to LPG/DME fueling, the CO and NOx emission factors increased for two vehicles, whereas THC and NMHC decreased. Regarding particulates, for two vehicles the emission factors decreased, too. Generally, when the vehicles were driven on the CADC, lower gaseous emissions were observed compared to WLTC: excluding one vehicle, when switching from gasoline to LPG/DME fueling, the overall emission profiles reflected those of the same vehicles run on the WLTC. The unregulated particulate emissions measured over both testing cycles reflect what was detected for the regulated ones. Except for PN10, which was not measured, all regulated emissions were found to meet the (most severe) Euro 7 standards proposed at first by the European Commission. RDE tests showed that all vehicle emissions obtained from on-road tests were also found to meet the RDE standards, regardless of the fueling. Concerning CO2 emissions, LPG/DME fueling guaranteed a systematic decrease for all vehicles and cycles, both on road and in the laboratory. The present investigation aims at demonstrating that the innovative LPG/DME 80 %/20 % (m/m) blend not only can be deemed as potentially suitable for GHG emissions reduction, as long as both DME and propane are obtained from renewable sources, but even compliant with EN 589 and both Euro 6 and part of preliminary Euro 7 exhaust emission proposal.

Asymmetric impact of energy prices on financial cycles based on interval time series modeling

Energy prices crucially affect financial cycles. We employ the bivariate empirical mode decomposition (BEMD) model to disaggregate the daily interval data of the volatility index (VIX) and rely on the threshold autoregressive interval model (TARI) to incorporate energy prices into the forecasting model. Furthermore, the threshold interval decomposition ensemble (TIDE) is used to forecast the VIX series with nonlinearities to improve the forecasting accuracy. Moreover, we apply the root mean square error (RMSE) and the Diebold–Mariano test (DM) to evaluate the TIDE model performance across various frequency components and the final integration results. This paper demonstrates a significant correlation between energy prices and financial cycles, along with a temporal asymmetry effect. While the impact of energy prices on improving VIX forecasting is minimal in the short term, it becomes substantial over medium and long terms. Specifically, the influence of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) prices on the VIX is notable in both medium and long terms. Our results offer new insights and methodologies for predicting financial cycles, assisting investors in evaluating volatility-related exchange-traded products. Additionally, these findings are crucial for developing more effective policies to promote green energy development.

Unlocking the secrets of Neapolitan pizza: A concise review of wood-fired, electric, and gas pizza ovens.

This review explores the Neapolitan pizza baking process in a traditional wood-fired oven, employing visual color analysis and IR thermal scanning to detail heat exchange mechanisms. During cooking, the oven floor temperature in the pizza area decreased proportionally to the pizza's mass, whereas the free area maintained a constant temperature of 439±3°C. An IR thermal camera indicated that the oven dome temperature reached approximately 480°C with a weak flame and 500°C with a strong flame. The pizza's bottom achieved a maximum temperature of 100±9°C, facilitated by the Pizzaiolo's skill in lifting and rotating the pizza for uniform cooking. Top temperatures varied: up to 180°C for white pizza and 84°C and 67°C for tomato and Margherita pizzas, respectively. IRIS electronic eye analysis revealed more browning and blackening on the pizza's top compared to its bottom, with peaks of about 26% and 8% for white pizza, respectively. Rapid baking is pivotal in Neapolitan pizza-making, necessitating precise heat and mass transfer management to influence sensory attributes. European Commission Regulation No. 97/2010 mandates wood-fired ovens for true Neapolitan pizza, but environmental concerns prompted the Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana to certify gas or electric ovens when wood-fired ovens are impractical. Operating costs vary: liquefied petroleum gas ovens are the costliest, with costs ranging from €5.38 to €6.19/h, whereas natural gas and electric ovens have operating costs between €2.70 and €4.10/h. At €0.15/kg, firewood is the most economical, supporting traditionalist views. However, natural gas and electric ovens present competitive costs under stringent antipollution laws, making them viable alternatives.

Tourism-generated energy use characteristics and sustainability transitions

Mountain tourism destinations are characterized as significantly impacted by their remoteness, seasonal climatic variations, and fragile ecosystems. These factors greatly influence the development, distribution, and consumption of energy sources in the tourism sector. With the increasing popularity of mountain parks and protected areas as tourism destinations, it is critical to understand the interplay between tourism development (e.g. expansion of tourism facilities), patterns of energy sources (diversity and consumption levels) in the tourism sector, and overall sustainability of resources use at the destination level. Current literature reveals a dearth of research on energy issues in mountain protected areas, which is somewhat surprising as energy and resource consumption issues are becoming more important from a climate change perspective. This paper examines contemporary energy use patterns in the Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park of Nepal. A mixed methods is applied to analyze development trends and transitions in energy use. Data were collected based on questionnaire surveys of tourism facilities, complemented by semi-structured interviews. The findings indicate that energy sources used in the facilities have gone through a significant change, from a firewood-dependent tourism center to increasing use of alternative sources including liquified petroleum gas (LPG) and hydroelectricity. About one-third of the facilities did not use firewood. The heterogeneous geographic distribution of the facilities affects the spatial use of energy sources. Furthermore, we argue that the coordination efforts between the national park administration and local communities, the growth of tourism, the construction of hydropower plants, and the advancement of transportation are the leading causes of the changes in energy use patterns. Knowledge of the energy use characteristics and drivers influencing the energy transitions can inform future policies that promote a low-carbon economy in mountain destinations.

Achieving Nepal's clean cooking ambitions: an open source and geospatial cost–benefit analysis

Cooking with traditional fuels can lead to severe health issues caused by household air pollution, and can also affect gender equality and drive environmental degradation. In Nepal, despite government efforts to promote electric cooking, more than half of the population still uses traditional fuels, with electric cooking adoption remaining below 1%. Several of the barriers to and enablers of clean cooking vary geographically; however, few studies have considered spatial explicit information in planning national-scale transitions to clean cooking. In this study we provide a spatially explicit roadmap to estimate the required investments and benefits gained from the transition across Nepal. This study uses geospatial modelling methods to evaluate strategies to achieve the Government of Nepal's vision for a national-scale transition to clean cooking. We integrate the open-source clean cooking geospatial assessment tool OnStove and a spatial multicriteria analysis model. With OnStove, we evaluate which cooking technologies and fuels maximise the net benefits of a clean-cooking transition across each km2 of the region. With the multicriteria analysis, we weigh stakeholder preferences and prioritise areas of action where policy should be implemented. We used the most up-to-date geospatial data to the year 2023, such as the High Resolution Settlement Layer, Open Street Maps' road networks, the Global Human Settlement Layer, NASA/USGS forest cover maps, and Facebook's Relative Wealth Index, among others. We also relied on data from the Nepal Oil Corporation, the Nepal Electricity Agency, the Central Bureau of Statistic's 2021 national census, and the Alternative Energy Promotion Center. We evaluate four scenarios capturing advances on clean cooking policy up to the year 2022, current market inefficiencies, and the potential effects of new policies for clean-cooking transition in Nepal. Our results show that transitional and clean cooking technologies provide higher net benefits than traditional options everywhere across Nepal in all scenarios. Our net-benefit analysis shows that around 9563 deaths could be averted yearly if benefits and externalities were perceived and valued correctly. Furthermore, substantial benefits could be achieved in regard to greenhouse gas emissions avoidance, time saved, and health-cost reductions. Our results also show that the current subsidy strategy from the Government of Nepal is well aligned with the benefits achieved under a cost-benefit analysis. In this context, electric cooking can bring the highest benefits to the largest part of the population. The analysis showed how high subsidies for liquefied petroleum gas in Nepal can present trade-offs with energy security and independence, and how this could be avoided by transferring part of the subsidy to cover differentiated electric cooking tariffs. Accounting for stakeholder preferences and sociodemographic and geographical differences to prioritise areas of focus can balance affordability constraints and target the most vulnerable people first, thus achieving integrated and inclusive planning. Using spatially explicit modelling approaches to evaluate strategies for a clean cooking transition can provide more nuanced results that have not been possible before. This approach can enable data-driven and integrated planning to help to understand which locations of a study area should be prioritised for policy application. Integrated planning can help to reduce affordability constraints on the population and design strategies for a sustainable and inclusive transition. These strategies allow financial institutions, donors, impact investors, development organisations, and government agencies to use their resources, funds, and assistance to create a large impact. Clean Cooking Alliance.

Evaluation of the Possible Effects of Varying the Volumetric Ratio of Lpg on the Spark Ignition Engine's Performance, Emissions, and Combustion

This study investigated the performance, emission reactions, and combustion of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) at various volumetric ratios with gasoline. The experiments were carried out on a single cylinder spark ignition (SI) engine at different engine loads (500 to 3000 W). In general, the use of LPG has a negative effect on performance and combustion, while making a positive contribution to emissions. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) values closest to 100% gasoline were obtained with 25% LPG and were lower by 0.36% and 4.55%, respectively. Conversely, using LPG resulted in lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO). The lowest emissions were obtained with the use of 100% LPG as 0.5%, 65 ppm and 9.5%, respectively. Compared to 100% gasoline, 20.63%, 27.78% and 5.19% improvements were achieved. Finally, the cylinder gas pressure value was negatively affected using LPG. Compared to 100% gasoline, the gas pressure value obtained with 75% LPG content fuel was 7.81% lower. It has been concluded that LPG is an environmentally friendly alternative fuel in terms of emissions, and considering the decrease in performance values, 25% LPG can be used successfully in SI engines instead of 100% LPG.