Liquid Leakage Research Articles

Flame-Retardant and Form-Stable Delignified Wood-Based Phase Change Composites with Superior Energy Storage Density and Reversible Thermochromic Properties for Visual Thermoregulation

The development of form-stable phase change materials (PCMs) with flame retardancy and the visual thermal storage process is crucial for their application in building energy conservation. Herein, an active phosphorus/ammonium-containing non-formaldehyde flame retardant (APA) was synthesized based on the natural compound phytic acid. Then, wood-based form-stable PCM composites (PTPCMs) with high energy storage density, excellent flame retardancy, and real-time and visual reversible thermochromic properties were successfully fabricated by impregnating the thermochromic compound into the APA-grafted delignified wood. The delignified wood well supports the solid–liquid PCMs and avoids their liquid leakage during phase transition due to the high surface tension and strong capillary effect. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that the PTPCMs possessed high thermal energy storage density (165.3–198.6 J/g) and reliable thermal stability. With the concentration of the flame-retardant APA increased, the peak heat release rate (pHRR) and total heat release (THR) of PTPCMs reduced noticeably, demonstrating the enhanced flame retardancy of PTPCMs. Moreover, PTPCM composites had good thermoregulation properties and the visualization of the phase transition process was made possible by the reversible thermochromic properties. In summary, the novel PTPCMs show tremendous application potential for efficient building energy conservation.

Phytic acid–decorated κ-carrageenan/melanin hybrid aerogels supported phase change composites with excellent photothermal conversion efficiency and flame retardancy

Organic phase change materials (PCMs) have been widely applied to thermal energy storage systems; however, poor solar–thermal conversion performance, high flammability, and liquid leakage issues considerably limit their practical application in efficient solar energy utilization. Herein, phytic acid–decorated melanin/κ-carrageenan aerogels (PMCAs) with excellent solar–thermal effect and satisfactory flame retardancy were developed using the cationic induction method. Then, form-stable PCM composites (PMPCMs) were fabricated by integrating molten n-octacosane into PMCAs through vacuum impregnation. The PMCAs effectively supported n-octacosane and avoided liquid leakage during the solar–thermal storage process owing to their strong surface tension and capillary force. The PMPCMs exhibited considerably high encapsulated efficiency (up to 97.73%), satisfactory thermal storage ability (246.7–257.7 J/g), and excellent thermal reliability. The introduction of natural melanin (natural photothermal conversion compound) and phytic acid (bio-based phosphorus-rich compound) significantly enhanced the solar–thermal conversion efficiency (from 61.7% to 89.4%) and flame retardancy of the PMPCMs. Thus, the synthesized form-stable composites possess tremendous potential for solar energy utilization.

Numerical simulation on flow and heat transfer in twin roll strip casting and rolling molten pool with side dams vibrating

A three-demensional numerical model is established to predict the free surface, the temperature field, the flow field, the turbulent kinectic energy, the outlet temperature, and the liquid fraction in the twin roll strip casting and rolling molten pool with side dams vibrating. The numerical simulations are also conducted to compare the flow and heat transfer characteristics under different vibration frequencies and different casting temperatures. The results show that the heat transfer is enhanced, the mixing of solutes is optimized, the strip outlet temperatures are homogeniazed, the kiss lines are higher, and the rolling intervals are extended as the frequency increased. Excessive casting temperature leads some unexpected problems such as liquid steel leakage and unformed strips. It also makes the height of kiss line uneven. Lower casting temperature leads the strip outlet temperature more uniform. It also leads the kiss lines higher. Finally, a new approach to advancing the development of twin roll strip casting and rolling is proposed through these analyses.

Flame-Retardant and Form-Stable Phase-Change Composites Based on Phytic Acid/ZnO-Decorated Surface-Carbonized Delignified Wood with Superior Solar-Thermal Conversion Efficiency and Improved Thermal Conductivity.

In order to efficiently exploit solar-thermal energy, it is essential to develop form-stable phase-change material (PCM) composites simultaneously with superior solar-thermal storage efficiency, excellent flame retardancy, and improved thermal conductivity. Herein, phytic acid (PA)-modified, zinc oxide-deposited, and surface-carbonized delignified woods (PZCDWs) were constructed by alkaline boiling, PA modification, ZnO deposition, and surface carbonization. Then, novel form-stable PCMs (PZPCMs) with superior solar-thermal storage efficiency, excellent flame retardancy, and improved thermal conductivity were fabricated by impregnating n-docosane into PZCDWs under vacuum. The PZCDW aerogels can well support the n-docosane and overcome liquid leakage owing to their superior surface tension and strong capillary force. Differential scanning calorimetry results showed that PZPCMs possessed superior n-docosane encapsulation yield and high phase-change enthalpy (185.2-213.1 J/g). Decorating delignified wood by surface carbonization and ZnO deposition significantly improved the solar-thermal conversion efficiency (up to 86.2%) and thermal conductivity (193.3% increased) of PCM composites. Furthermore, with the introduction of PA into PZPCMs, the peak heat release rate and total heat release of the PCM composites decreased considerably, indicating the enhanced flame retardancy of PZPCMs. In conclusion, the novel renewable wood-based PCM composites demonstrate promising potential in solar energy harnessing and thermal modulation technologies.

Acoustic Model for Leak Detection of Water Supply Pipeline

The leak detection of water supply pipelines is significant for the protection of water resources. Acoustic detection is a common method used to investigate water supply pipeline leaks. Although some acoustic methods for the leak detection of the water supply pipeline have been developed experimentally, the theoretical investigation of said acoustic methods is still limited. Compared with aeroacoustics, the development of quantitative jet acoustic theory towards flow field calculations of liquid pipeline leak has not been reported, and the characteristics of the liquid flow field cannot be quantitatively transformed into the acoustic model. In this paper, the liquid pipeline leak is combined with piston acoustics, and the acoustic model for the leak detection of the water supply pipeline is quantitatively studied for the first time. The acoustic pressure value can be directly calculated using pipe and liquid parameters, and the validity of the model can be verified experimentally. Based on theoretical and experimental investigations, it is found that the leak sound pressure increases significantly with increasing pipeline pressure and decreases with increasing detection distance. The material composition of the pipes has little influence on the leak sound pressure. The theoretical values based on the proposed acoustic model and the experimental values agree well, where the maximum difference between them is 8.5% and the average difference is 2.6%. This study presents a foundation for the development of acoustic leak detection technology of the liquid pipeline.

Deep Eutectic Solvents-based Ionogels with Ultrafast Gelation and High Adhesion in Harsh Environments.

Adhesive materials have recently drawn intensive attention due to their excellent sealing ability, thereby stimulating advances in materials science and industrial usage. However, reported adhesives usually exhibit weak adhesion strength, require high pressure for strong bonding, and display severe adhesion deterioration in various harsh environments. In this work, instead of water or organic solvents, a deep eutectic solution (DES) was used as the medium for photopolymerization of zwitterionic and polarized monomers, thus generating a novel ionogel with tunable mechanical properties. Multiple hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions between DES and monomers facilitated ultrafast gelation and instant bonding without any external pressure, which was rarely reported previously. Furthermore, high adhesion in different harsh environments (e.g., water, acidic and basic buffers, and saline solutions) and onto hydrophilic (e.g., glass and tissues) and hydrophobic (e.g., polymethyl methacrylate, polystyrene, and polypropylene) adherends was demonstrated. Also, high stretchability of the ionogel at extreme temperatures (-80 and 80 °C) indicated its widespread applications. Furthermore, the biocompatible ionogel showed high burst pressure onto stomach and intestine tissues to prevent liquid leakage, highlighting its potential as an adhesive patch. This ionogel provides unprecedented opportunities in the fields of packaging industry, marine engineering, medical adhesives, and electronic assembly.

Polyethylene Glycol/Polyurethane Acrylate-Based Flexible Phase-Change Film with Excellent Mechanical Strength and Reversible Optical Performance

The application of thermal energy storage (TES) technology in practical engineering has been limited by liquid leakage and material rigidity during phase change. In this study, we prepared novel polyethylene glycol (PEG)/polyurethane acrylate (PUA)-based flexible phase-change films (PCFs) using ultraviolet (UV) curing technology to solve these problems. The PCFs showed a desirable phase-change enthalpy (113.1 J/g), low leakage rate (1.70%), reversible optical performance, excellent shape stability, and superior flexibility. The tensile strength of the PCF was 5.00 MPa, and the elongation at break reached 1342.3%, which was five times higher than that of pure PUA, indicating outstanding flexibility and toughness. The as-prepared PCFs show great potential for future applications, such as incorporation into flexible electronic devices and temperature control systems.

Failure Reason of PI Test Samples of Neural Implants.

Samples that were meant to simulate the behavior of neural implants were put into Ringer's solution, and the occurring damage was assessed. The samples consist of an interdigitated gold-structure and two contact pads embedded between two Polyimide layers, resulting in free-floating structures. The two parts of the interdigitated structure have no electric contacts and are submerged in the solution during the experiment. The samples were held at temperatures of 37 and 57 ∘C in order to undergo an accelerated lifetime test and to compare the results. During the course of the experiment, a voltage was applied and measured over a resistance of 1 kOhm over time. Arduinos were used as measuring devices. As the intact samples are insulating, a sudden rise in voltage indicates a sample failure due to liquid leaking in between the two polyimide layers. Once a short-circuit occurred and a sample broke down, the samples were taken out of the vial and examined under a microscope. In virtually all cases, delamination was observable, with variation in the extent of the delaminated area. A comparison between measured voltages after failure and damage did not show a correlation between voltage and area affected by delamination. However, at a temperature of 37 ∘C, voltage remained constant most of the time after delamination, and a pin-hole lead to a lower measured voltage and strong fluctuations. Visually, no difference in damage between the 37 and the 57 ∘C samples was observed, although fluctuations of measured voltage occurred in numerous samples at a higher temperature. This difference hints at differences in the reasons for failure and thus limited applicability of accelerated lifetime tests.

Bionic Design of Furrow Opener Based on Muskrat Claw-Toe Structure to Improve the Operating Performance of Deep Application of Liquid Fertilizer in Paddy Fields in Cold Region of China

The deep application of liquid fertilizer in paddy fields is a fertilization technique that applies liquid fertilizer deep near the root system of paddy field crops, which can effectively improve the absorption rate of the crops and reduce the amount of fertilizer applied. In the cold regions of China, the soil return rate of the furrowing operation of the deep application of liquid fertilizer in paddy fields is low, which can easily cause the excessive liquid leakage of fertilizer and affect crop growth. Therefore, it is difficult to popularize in large areas. According to the characteristics of paddy soil in the cold regions of China and the operating requirements of a high backfill rate and low disturbance rate of the soil of the deep application of liquid fertilizer, this paper designed a bionic liquid fertilizer deep application furrow opener based on the claw-toe structure of the muskrat. In this study, an indoor soil bin test was conducted by constructing a deep application environment for the liquid fertilizer in paddy fields. The results of the soil bin test showed the effects of the key operating parameters of the bionic design of the liquid fertilizer deep application furrow opener, spraying pressure of the liquid fertilizer and operating speed on the furrowing resistance, soil disturbance rate and the leakage amount of liquid fertilizer. The bionic design of the liquid fertilizer deep application furrow opener has a low soil disturbance rate and leakage amount of fertilizer when the operating speed is 0.8 m s−1, and the spraying pressure is 0.2 MPa. This furrow opener significantly improves the operating performance of the deep application of liquid fertilizer in the cold regions of China and is suitable for the deep application of liquid fertilizer in the paddy fields of this region.

Advanced thermal fluid leakage detection system with machine learning algorithm for pipe-in-pipe structure

Pipe-in-pipe (PIP) system is essential for high thermal and high pressure fluid transportation. However, in the existing PIP systems, fluid leakage between inner and outer pipe has been difficult to discover or detect, which has worked as bottle neck to utilize PIP system in high risk industries as nuclear reactor, chemical plant or oil drilling systems. Here, we propose a noble PIP leakage detection system utilizing distributed temperature sensing (DTS) with Machine Learning (ML). With the Fourier transformed spectrogram data from DTS, the ML assisted system was able to detect 0.2∼7 ml/min liquid leakage between inner and outer pipe with the accuracy of 91.67% with a single embedded optical fiber. Under varying operating temperature, the system successfully distinguished leakage and non-leakage states using the optimized convolutional neural network. Our developed PIP leakage detection system can be deployed in safety-critical industrial systems for autonomous leakage detection.

Use of Silica Fume, Bentonite, and Waste Tire Rubber as Impermeable Layer Construction Materials

To avoid the potential risks associated with all hazardous wastes, it is important that containment methods are intended to prevent the migration of liquid hazardous wastes or leaks containing hazardous components. Therefore, impermeable barriers were used to prevent contamination. In this study, geotechnical tests were performed on samples by mixing rubber and bentonite with silica fume at certain percentages. The aim of the experimental studies is to evaluate the applicability of certain proportions of silica fume, rubber, and bentonite mixtures as impermeable liner material. Possible cracks in bentonite during drying are reduced by the use of silica fume. Absorption of dynamic effects that may occur on the impermeable barrier layer is achieved by adding waste rubber in a uniform size. Several geotechnical tests were performed to examine the mixed rubber and bentonite with silica fumes. Looking at the results of the whole that mixed rubber and bentonite with silica fume yielded usable results and a blend for construction of a liner.

The Progress in the Electrolytes for Solid State Sodium‐Ion Battery

AbstractSodium as the closest analogue of lithium in periodic table is attracting intense interest as a potential replacement, in the hope that Na+ offers similar intercalation chemistries in electrode hosts at much lower cost. Sodium‐ion battery is an alternative choice to meet the large‐scale electrical energy storage and also able to be used to store the electricity generated by solar cells and wind turbines as a green, renewable energy source. The use of solid electrolytes to replace the organic electrolyte is an alternative to improve the safety and avoid liquid leakage. The detailed and comprehensive research progress for sodium‐ion battery solid electrolyte is summarized. The recent research reveals that the chemical composition and crystal structure of electrolytes profoundly affects the cell performance in many aspects. The room temperature ionic conductivity for solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) is generally lower than ≈10−5 S cm−1. Gel polymer electrolyte (GPE) yields acceptable ionic conductivity as the transition between liquid electrolyte and all‐solid electrolyte. There also has groundbreaking progress of inorganic solid electrolyte chemistries exhibiting superionic Na+ conductivities. However, their interphasial chemistries are the emphasis to break through. In the future, exciting breakthroughs in solid electrolytes and interphasial chemistries should be made in those fields.

Mechanical sintering-induced conductive flexible self-healing eGaInSn@PDA NDs/TPU composite based on structural design to against liquid metal leakage

Room-temperature liquid metals are potential candidates for developing flexible and reconfigurable conductive composites. However, an auxiliary sintering process is required to rupture the oxide and organically modified layers on the liquid metal (LM) nanodroplets (NDs) surface to reactivate their conductive and fluidic properties, thereby forming a continuous conductive pathway inside the composite. However, such a destructive strategy leads to leakage of liquid metal and destruction of composite integrity. Here, the “solvent volatilization strategy” was introduced to cause the organic solvent within thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) to rapidly volatilize and be actively degassed during the polymerization process, forming densely packed micron-scale cavities. The polydopamine (PDA)-modified eGaInSn NDs were uniformly distributed and anchored to the inner wall of the cavity, providing sufficient filling space for the stress-ruptured eGaInSn@PDA NDs. During the application of mechanical pressure, the composite gradually converted from a dielectric state to a conductive state and it was able to quickly and repeatedly self-healing to restore conductivity after fracturing. In particular, no liquid metal pump-out or leakage was observed on the composite surface even after applying an 8 MPa high stress. In addition, the composite embedded with a high fraction eGaInSn@PDA NDs still exhibited high flexibility and had excellent electromagnetic shielding and X-ray attenuation capabilities.

Biomimetic bone tissue structure: An ultrastrong thermal energy storage wood

Phase change material (PCM) with thermal energy storage capacity and automatic temperature regulation hold tremendous potential for construction energy conservation. However, conventional PCMs often exhibits liquid leakage, volume change and insufficient mechanical property, which are prone to load-bearing accidents, hindering their application as an engineering building material. Herein, inspired by the oriented “brick-and-mortar” structure in bone, we report a facile strategy to develop a form-stable, ultrastrong and highly energy-stored composite wood-based PCM (PWPCM) via in-situ polymerization of polyurethane-based PCM using hierarchically well-aligned wood as bio-template. PWPCM showed high tensile strength of 81.9 MPa and elastic modulus of 10.2 GPa along the longitudinal direction due to the well-aligned cellulose nanofibrils arrays and the “brick-and-mortar” structure based on strong intermolecular bonding between cellulose and PCM chains, as confirmed by molecular dynamic simulations. PWPCM was 73.4 times stronger than pure PCM, and 4–40 times as high as most conventional PCMs ever reported, representing one of the strongest composite PCMs. Benefited from the high-loading PCM, PWPCM showed wide phase transition temperature range and high enthalpy of 116.1 J/g, together with outstanding temperature regulation and shape-stability. This work provides a promising strategy for fabricating low-cost, eco-friendly, strong wood-based PCM for energy-saving construction and intelligent agriculture.

A novel one-step ultraviolet curing fabrication of myristic acid-resin shape-stabilized composite phase change material for low temperature thermal energy storage

In this work we present for the first time a simply, fast and efficient process for the fabrication of form-stable composite phase change material (PCM) by ultraviolet (UV)-curing technique. Simply by UV-curing of the PCM with a desired UV curable carrier for several minutes, a neoteric UV-cured composite that suitable for low temperature thermal energy storage (TES) can be fabricated. The feasibility of such a novel technique is demonstrated by investigating a case of myristic acid (MA) dispersed into a UV curable resin containing polyurethane acrylate (PUA). The results show that a crosslinked structure is formed in the composite after UV-curing due to the occurrence of photochemical reaction, which offer sufficient paths to accommodate the PCM, endowing the composite with the great ability to maintain the structure stabilization and prevent the liquid leakage. A good physical and chemical compatibility has been achieved in the composite and 40 wt% of UV-curing resin grants the composite optimum formula at which a melting temperature of 52 °C and an energy storage density over 210.8 kJ/kg at temperature ranged 25–100 °C are obtained. The results also reveal that the material mechanical strength can be linked to the UV-curing duration. For a given V-curing time of 5–30 mins, the composite mechanical strength is measured over 25–34 MPa, almost over twice as high as that of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and styrene ethylene butylene styrene (SEBS) based composites. Owing to the high shape strength and excellent thermal cycling performance, such UV-curable composites can be utilized for modular design of TES devices, and also be used to precisely and directionally produce TES devices through additive manufacturing. This work exploits a new perspective for the energy-saving and time-effective fabrication of shape stabilized composite PCMs for low temperature thermal energy storage.

Fe3O4-Functionalized κ-Carrageenan/Melanin Hybrid Aerogel-Supported Form-Stable Phase-Change Composites with Excellent Solar/Magnetic–Thermal Conversion Efficiency and Enhanced Thermal Conductivity

Impregnating organic phase-change materials (PCMs) into biomass-derived aerogels is regarded as one of the most effective and accessible approach to address the liquid leakage issues of solid–liquid PCMs. However, the inefficient solar–thermal conversion and low thermal conductivity still restrict the large-scaled applications of organic PCMs in solar utilization fields. Herein, novel form-stable PCM composites (CMPCM-Fe) with enhanced thermal conductivity and excellent solar- and magnetic-driven thermal energy conversion and storage efficiency were fabricated by impregnating n-docosane into Fe3O4-functionalized κ-carrageenan/melanin hybrid aerogels (CMA-Fe) through vacuum impregnation. CMA-Fe effectively supported n-docosane and prevented the leakage issue during the phase transition process owing to its strong surface tension and capillary force. CMPCM-Fe exhibited high encapsulated efficiency (88.9–94.6%), satisfactory thermal storage capacity (229.1–246.9 J/g), and excellent reversible stability. The introduction of Fe3O4 nanoparticles enhanced the thermal conductivity (55.3% increased) and solar–thermal conversion efficiency (up to 93.5%) of CMPCM-Fe and endowed it with excellent magnetic–thermal conversion capacity under an alternating magnetic field. The synthesized CMPCM-Fe possesses broad application prospect in mutiresponse thermal management.

Development of a risk assessment method for the detailed consideration of the effects of liquid toxic substance leakage incidents on the human body: ethanol as a model substance.

To ensure safety in chemical plants handling a wide variety of liquid and gaseous hazardous substances, it is necessary to carry out highly accurate risk assessments and take appropriate measures. In this study, a risk assessment method was developed for the problem of the leakage of liquid hazardous substances. The risk assessment of toxic liquid leaks must consider the exposure of workers to the liquid and toxic gases produced by vaporization. The absorption and subsequent metabolism of hazardous substances in the body via multiple pathways after exposure to liquids and gases was calculated using a pharmacokinetic model. Estimation of exposure concentrations of toxic gases volatilized from leaked liquids was reproduced by computational fluid dynamics simulation. In this study, ethanol was selected as the hazardous substance and the risk of hazardous liquid leakage was assessed. The results of the analysis, which considered liquid and gas exposure under the conditions of the assumed scenario, showed that the maximum blood concentration of ethanol was 1640 µmol/L, which is sufficiently low compared to the concentration of 10,900 µmol/L at which acute toxic effects become apparent. These results suggest that work can be carried out safely under the conditions of the assumed scenario. The risk assessment methodology for liquid spills in this study confirms that risk assessment is possible under multiple scenarios, including individual differences, activity conditions, and the use of protective equipment.

MLD-MPC Approach for Three-Tank Hybrid Benchmark Problem

The present paper aims at validating a Model Predictive Control (MPC), based on the Mixed Logical Dynamical (MLD) model, for Hybrid Dynamic Systems (HDSs) that explicitly involve continuous dynamics and discrete events. The proposed benchmark system is a three-tank process, which is a typical case study of HDSs. The MLD-MPC controller is applied to the level control of the considered tank system. The study is initially focused on the MLD approach that allows consideration of the interacting continuous dynamics with discrete events and includes the operating constraints. This feature of MLD modeling is very advantageous when an MPC controller synthesis for the HDSs is designed. Once the MLD model of the system is well-posed, then the MPC law synthesis can be developed based on the Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) optimization problem. For solving this MIP problem, a Branch and Bound (B&B) algorithm is proposed to determine the optimal control inputs. Then, a comparative study is carried out to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed hybrid controller for the HDSs compared to the standard MPC approach. Performances results show that the MLD-MPC approach outperforms the standard MPC one that doesn’t consider the hybrid aspect of the system. The paper also shows a behavioral test of the MLD-MPC controller against disturbances deemed as liquid leaks from the system. The results are very satisfactory and show that the tracking error is minimal less than 0.1% in nominal conditions and less than 0.6% in the presence of disturbances. Such results confirm the success of the MLD-MPC approach for the control of the HDSs.

Cadmium Sulfide—Reinforced Double-Shell Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials for Advanced Thermal Energy Storage

Phase change materials (PCMs) are widely used to improve energy utilization efficiency due to their high energy storage capacity. In this study, double-shell microencapsulated PCMs were constructed to resolve the liquid leakage issue and low thermal conductivity of organic PCMs, which also possess high thermal stability and multifunctionality. We used assembly to construct an inorganic-organic double shell for microencapsulate PCMs, which possessed the unprecedented synergetic properties of a cadmium sulfide (CdS) shell and melamine-formaldehyde polymeric shell. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images confirmed the well-designed double-shell structure of the microcapsules, and the CdS was successfully assembled as the second shell on the surface of the polymer shell. The differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) showed that the double-shell microcapsules had a high enthalpy of 114.58 J/g, which indicated almost no changes after experiencing 100 thermal cycles, indicating good thermal reliability. The microcapsules also showed good shape stability and antileakage performance, which displayed no shape change and leakage after heating at 60 °C for 30 min. In addition, the photothermal conversion efficiency of the double-shell microcapsules reached 91.3%. Thus, this study may promote the development of microencapsulated PCMs with multifunctionality, offering considerable application prospects in intelligent temperature management for smart textiles and wearable electronic devices in combination with their solar thermal energy conversion and storage performance.

Influence of Tip Clearance on Cavitation Characteristics of an Inducer of Turbopump: CFD Study

The tip clearance, a compact gap between the inducer blade tip and casing wall, is critical to both the liquid leakage and cavitation-induced forces of a turbopump. In this study, we numerically investigate the effect of tip clearance on the cavitation characteristics of an inducer. Six different tip clearances, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2 mm, namely Models A–F, were designed to evaluate the cavitation performance, cavity structure, blade loading, radial force, etc. Model D (1.0 mm) had the relatively highest head coefficient and smallest cavity area on each blade as compared to all other models. The pressure coefficient distribution and blade loading further confirmed that Model D can maintain a higher pressure head and better suppress the cavitation onset than the other models. The radial force signals in the time and frequency domains show that Model D has an intermediate force magnitude with slightly higher noises at the rotating frequency and its harmonic frequencies. Model D also has a relatively smaller vortex region and smaller vortex strength (λ2 criterion). In short, all results show that Model D is the best alternative to balance the complex interactions of the bulk flow and tip leakage flow, compromising the hydraulic head and rotating cavitation.