Liquefied Form Research Articles

Effects of physical state (liquid-solid) of foods on food intake: procedural and substantive contributions

Two types of procedures are described for the study of the effects of food attributes on food intake. One is concurrent evaluation in which the attribute is placed in the food, and the amount consumed is measured. The other is the preloading paradigm in which a food containing the attribute is given before a test meal and intake of the test meal is measured. From our work with both types of procedure in which we used foods in both solid and liquefied form, we conclude that the effects of food attributes on intake will differ depending on which procedure is used. Concurrent evaluation is recommended when the time course of the attribute is short-lived (few seconds to a minute). Preloading is the procedure of choice when the attribute's effect is longer-lasting (several minutes to hours). When the same food was served in either solid or liquefied form, there was no difference in intakes of the two versions, but for liquefied form, the rate of consumption was faster, and meal duration was shorter, than for the solid. When a completely liquefied preload (soup) was given, intake in the following test meal was less for the same caloric load than when the preload was only partly in liquid form. Liquefied foods may be more efficient in producing satiety, as measured by food intake reduction, than solids. Because the two preloads were different across dimensions other than solid-liquid, more investigation of these other dimensions is needed.

Underground Storage of LNG

The LNG industry requires a huge amount of investment in the facilities for liquefaction and marine transportation. In addition, the storage of LNG has posed a serious problem for both shipping and receiving points from technical and economical points Of view.The storage of LNG was normally made in double-wall metal tanks in the initial stage. However, this method was comparatively higher in cost and required highly advenced techniques in the construction. Furthermore it had another detrimental factor that a suitable location was not always readily available. As a counter-measure to this, an underground storage technique was developed and has since been gradually industrialized on a commercial basis.Additionally, instead of storing LNG in liquefied form, the underground storage of LNG in regasified form has come into wide use as a large-scale storage method.Japan is regarded to grow to the world largest importing country of LNG in the near future and, as her consumption of LNG increases she will be faced with the problem of how and where to keep these large supplies stored. A reasonably possible answer to this question will be an underground storage method of LNG in the Pacific belt regions of Japan which will be the principal areas to receive LNG import from abroad.Also, when the utilization of natural gas becomes prevailing, large scale storing of LNG will be a requisite for the purpose of peak-shaving. The most practical method for this will be underground storage in regasified form and for this purpose those depleted gas (oil) reservoirs located in the northern part of Japan on the Japan Sea will no doubt be most useful.

Challenges of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) Carriers in 21' Century

Natural gas is relatively cheap, environmentally friendlyand energetically efficient fossil fuel that is gaining in attractivenessdaily as it can be used in many sectors. As not all consumerscan be reached by pipelines the technique of transp01tingnatural gas in the liquefied form has been developed at the beginningof 20th century but it was only in 1959 that the firstoverseas transport of liquefied natural gas ( LN G) occurred. Inthe fifty years of operation LNG shipping has shown immaculatesafety records. LNG tankers can be described only in superlatives;they are without any doubt the most sophisticated and·expensive ships that sail around the globe, they demand specialattention when navigating to or out of harbours and need to bemanned with the most educated and experienced crew. LNGmarket is expanding and changing; demand is surpassing theproductivity, new importing and exporting countries appear,LNG fleet is growing in capacity and number at high pace, exploitationcontracts for the ships are being modified giving theopportunity for new companies to enter( . .. ). The paper givesan overview on liquefied natural gas market and the historic developmentof LNG shipping. It focuses on the recent boom inLNG shipping and emphasises questions concerning the safety,crewing and exploitation of the LNG tankers in the future.

LNGA Boon to the Natural Gas Industry

One of the greatest problems facing producers of natural gas is that of transporting it economically from the source of supply to the market points that frequently are separated by vast distances. Liquefaction may be the best solution. Introduction Much interest has developed in liquefied natural gas during the last 10 years, and two basic reasons account for this interest. One is the discovery of huge natural gas reserves in areas that cannot be connected by pipelines to hungry markets. This situation exists in numerous places throughout the world. For example, large reserves of gas have been discovered in Alaska, Algeria, Brunei, Libya, Nigeria, and Venezuela, whereas substantial markets for this gas exist in England, France, Italy, Spain, Japan, the United States and other countries. The real problem is finding an economical means of transporting the gas from the sources of supply to the markets. In some cases, transportation in liquefied form is a possible solution. The other basic reason for this interest in LNG is the need to store gas during periods of low demand, so that large volumes will be available on short notice to meet the total requirements of consumers usually during the very coldest days of the year -when the demand exceeds the throughput capacity of the transmission pipelines, the capacity of underground storage, and the supplies of manufactured gas. Meeting these peak loads with a particular source of supply is commonly referred to as peak-load shaving. Interest in the use of LNG in the U. S. and Canada has centered almost entirely in this type of service. It follows, then, that there are basically two types of LNG operations. One is the base-load-type project, which requires sufficient liquefaction, transportation, and regasification capacity to maintain movement of the gas in liquefied form to markets throughout the year at the prescribed rate. However, for this type, the required LNG storage capacity may be relatively small-just enough to absorb fluctuations in the LNG flow caused by tanker loading and unloading operations, plus some allowance for delays in shipping. The peak-load-shaving plant, such as we have in the U. S., is an entirely different type of operation and is actually an LNG storage facility capable of delivering large volumes of gas when needed. The liquefaction rate is low because usually 200 or more days during the year will be used to MI storage in preparation for the cold days. But the regasification preparation for the cold days. But the regasification rate is high enough, in some cases, to empty storage in only 5 days. During the last 3 or 4 years, interest has developed in other uses for LNG. For instance, it has been used successfully in small satellite gas distribution systems. Also, LNG is being considered as a propulsion fuel for cars, trucks, buses, trains, supersonic aircraft and industrial equipment. The ability to transport LNG by tank truck has been demonstrated on several occasions over distances up to 2,500 miles. Base Load Projects Let us consider first the extent to which interest in base-load-type projects has developed. One such project is in full operation. Two more will begin project is in full operation. Two more will begin operating in 1969, and several other projects are either firm or in advanced stages of planning. JPT P. 1249

Natural Gas--Its Value as a Function of Its Chemical and Physical Properties: ABSTRACT

Natural gas as it is produced from the ground (after having been separated from the concurrently produced crude oil or condensate) is a mixture of compounds which have widely varying physical characteristics. These compounds are composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms in various molecular arrangements and are generally referred to as hydrocarbons. Impurities sometimes occur in natural gas and are usually removed. Except in special situations, these impurities are not valuable enough to warrant their recovery and purification. Natural gas obeys the so-called gas laws relating pressure, volume, and temperature as well as certain relationships dictated by the characteristics of the individual compounds. These characteristics are determined by the molecular structure or arrangement of the carbon and hydrogen atoms. Among the characteristics which affect natural gas or its components values are boiling point or vapor pressure, critical pressure and temperatures, specific gravity, and heat of combustion. These same characteristics govern the separation of the mixtures in processing plants. Partly because of the characteristics of the individual hydrocarbons the relative amounts of the separate compounds vary appreciably, with the lighter hydrocarbons being much more prevalent than the heavier hydrocarbons. The two principal uses for natural gas are for fuel and as a basis for the manufacture of chemicals. By far the largest use of natural gas as produced, as well as some of the constituents extracted therefrom, is for fuel. However, a small but important amount of natural gas is used in manufacturing chemicals. These chemicals are called petrochemicals since their origin is petroleum. The ability of carbon and hydrogen to bond together in a variety of forms makes the constituents of natural gas perfect building blocks for many modern day chemicals. Many interesting future developments are in store for natural gas. These include extension of existing and the building of new pipeline systems, both for natural gas and for natural gas liquids. In addition, trans-oceanic movement of natural gas in liquefied form is an accomplished fact and will play an increasing role in the world's energy balance. Future expansion of the petrochemical use is also anticipated. End_of_Article - Last_Page 123------------