Lion Population Research Articles

CASE-CONTROL STUDY OF THE FREQUENCY AND ETIOLOGY OF ATAXIA IN ASIATIC LIONS (PANTHERA LEO PERSICA) BETWEEN 2002 AND 2020.

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) is an endangered species with a slowly increasing captive and wild population. Several zoos from within the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Ex Situ Program reported Asiatic lions with neurological signs such as (progressive) ataxia, and stargazing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency (prevalence and incidence) and etiology of these clinical signs within the captive Asiatic lion population. The medical history of 74 Asiatic lions (36 healthy and 38 affected) was retrieved and reviewed for blood tests (biochemical, hematological, and retinol), diagnostic imaging (MRI and CT scans) and postmortem examinations. The data of the affected lions was compared with those of healthy lions. Between 2002 and 2020, the prevalence of ataxia ranged from 0.6% in 2004 to 13.0% in 2020. The incidence of ataxia was variable per year between 2002 and 2020 and ranged between 0 and 40%. Besides ataxia, stiffness and lameness were the most described signs in this study. Blood results showed lower total protein, ALT and creatinine, and higher phosphate in lions with neurological signs. Moreover, neurologically affected lions showed a significant lower blood retinol than the control lions (0.59-0.81 µmol/L). The most important finding in diagnostic imaging and necropsy included caudal fossa hyperostosis and cerebellar herniation. These abnormalities are similar as found in African lions (Panthera leo) with calvarial hyperostosis syndrome associated with vitamin A deficiency. Leucomyelopathy, syringomyelia (in one case combined with cerebellar herniation) and incidental mineralization of the dura mater were also described. A possible congenital/hereditary component should not be excluded.

Unveiling mercury levels: Trophic habits influence on bioaccumulation in two Otariid species

Mercury, a toxic metal released by various human activities, exerts environmental stress through its bioaccumulation and biomagnification, particularly in marine habitats. South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis) and sea lions (Otaria flavescens) reproduce on the Atlantic coast of Uruguay. As top predators, they can accumulate toxic levels of mercury and are often used as sentinel species for monitoring ecosystem health. Fur seals prey on pelagic species, such as fish and squid, while sea lions consume coastal-benthic prey. We analyzed the total mercury concentration (THg) in hair and the trophic habits (δ13C and δ15N) of females from both species. The average THg concentration in adult female sea lions (30.5 ± 9.3 μg/g dry weight) was significantly higher than in fur seals (6.3 ± 2.5 μg/g dry weight). Additionally, the mean δ15N and δ13C values were significantly higher in sea lion (δ15N: 19.2 ± 0.6‰, δ13C: −13.8 ± 0.2‰) compared to fur seals (δ15N: 16.5 ± 0.5‰, δ13C: −15.5 ± 0.6‰). Our results suggest that different trophic levels and feedings areas affect the THg concentration in Uruguayan Otariids. Notably, at the intraspecific level, the THg concentration in sea lions increased with δ13C values, suggesting a link to coastal feeding habits. This indicates that coastal feeding behaviors, compared to feeding in pelagic environments, enhance mercury bioaccumulation in Otariids along the Uruguayan coast, with the discharge of freshwater from the Río de la Plata (one of the largest estuaries in South America) basin identified as a potential mercury source. THg concentrations found in female sea lion hair are the highest reported in Otariids globally. Mercury levels exceeded toxic thresholds observed in other mammals and could pose significant health risks. Our findings may explain why sea lions were particularly affected by the avian influenza outbreak in Uruguay compared to fur seals. Monitoring the declining sea lion population is crucial, making our results significant for integrated conservation and management strategies.

Sex-specific social aging in wild African lions

There is a growing interest in social behavior change with age,1,2,3,4,5 and the impacts of sociality on longevity,6,7,8 but current knowledge is broadly limited to primates, societies structured by dominance hierarchies, or single-sex studies. It is less clear how social aging patterns emerge in carnivores. The African lion (Panthera leo), a species that lives in egalitarian fission-fusion societies, presents an exceptional opportunity to examine social aging. Across felids, lions are unique in their dependence on conspecifics for many essential processes,9,10,11 and there is vast knowledge of lion behavioral ecology,10,11,12,13,14 including documented reproductive senescence in both sexes.14,15 Applying spatial-social network analyses across 30 years of data on the wild Serengeti lion population, we show that sex strongly modulates patterns of social aging and longevity. Group size increased with age for both sexes, but only males experienced significant changes in associate numbers (degree), specifically to females, which peaked in mid-life before declining. While aging females experienced declines in intra-sex connectivity (strength) and bond strength (mean strength), they peaked in both to males during mid-life. Male inter-sex strength also peaked in mid-life, while conversely their intra-sex strength and mean strength significantly dipped in mid-life. Although social associations were important for survival in both sexes, the investment diverged significantly: females' overall network connectivity was key for longevity, while the number of associates was important for males. These findings illustrate important potential effects of social aging in a wild carnivore and demonstrate how these diverge strongly between the sexes.

Impacts of management practices on habitat selection during juvenile mountain lion dispersal.

Dispersal is a complex series of movements before an individual establishes a home range. Animals must travel and forage in unfamiliar landscapes that include anthropogenic risks such as road crossings, harvest, and urban landscapes. We compare dispersal behavior of juvenile mountain lions (Puma concolor) from two geographically distinct populations in California and Nevada, USA. These two sites are ecologically similar but have different management practices; hunting is permitted in Nevada, whereas mountain lions are protected in California. We used GPS-collar data and net-squared displacement analysis to identify three dispersal states: exploratory, departure, and transient home range. We then compared each dispersal state of the two mountain lion populations using an integrated step selection analysis (iSSA). The model included explanatory variables hypothesized to influence one or more dispersal states, including distance to forest, shrub, water, hay and crop, developed lands, and four-wheel drive roads, as well as elevation and terrain ruggedness. Results revealed consistent habitat selection between sites across most landscape variables, with one notable exception: anthropogenic covariates, including distance to developed land, distance to hay and crop, and distance to four-wheeled drive roads, were only statistically significant on modeled habitat selection during dispersal in the population subject to hunting (i.e., Nevada). Results suggest that hunting (pursuit with hounds resulting in harvest) and non-lethal pursuit (pursuit with hounds but no harvest allowed) increase avoidance of anthropogenic landscapes during dispersal for juvenile mountain lions. By comparing populations, we provided valuable insights into the role of management in shaping dispersal behavior.

Human-carnivore conflict mitigation and lion population viability in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park

Human-carnivore conflict mitigation and lion population viability in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park

Multifaceted density dependence: Social structure and seasonality effects on Serengeti lion demography.

Interactions between density and environmental conditions have important effects on vital rates and consequently on population dynamics and can take complex pathways in species whose demography is strongly influenced by social context, such as the African lion, Panthera leo. In populations of such species, the response of vital rates to density can vary depending on the social structure (e.g. effects of group size or composition). However, studies assessing density dependence in populations of lions and other social species have seldom considered the effects of multiple socially explicit measures of density, and-more particularly for lions-of nomadic males. Additionally, vital-rate responses to interactions between the environment and various measures of density remain largely uninvestigated. To fill these knowledge gaps, we aimed to understand how a socially and spatially explicit consideration of density (i.e. at the local scale) and its interaction with environmental seasonality affect vital rates of lions in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. We used a Bayesian multistate capture-recapture model and Bayesian generalized linear mixed models to estimate lion stage-specific survival and between-stage transition rates, as well as reproduction probability and recruitment, while testing for season-specific effects of density measures at the group and home-range levels. We found evidence for several such effects. For example, resident-male survival increased more strongly with coalition size in the dry season compared with the wet season, and adult-female abundance affected subadult survival negatively in the wet season, but positively in the dry season. Additionally, while our models showed no effect of nomadic males on adult-female survival, they revealed strong effects of nomads on key processes such as reproduction and takeover dynamics. Therefore, our results highlight the importance of accounting for seasonality and social context when assessing the effects of density on vital rates of Serengeti lions and of social species more generally.

Wild lions in small, fenced reserves in South Africa conform to a meta‐population

Abstract Lions (Panthera leo) are declining across their range, mainly due to human‐induced habitat fragmentation and prey depletion. However, the South African lion population continues to grow. Unlike other range states, South Africa actively manages wild lions across a continuum of landscapes and ecological constraints. Many of these lions are in small, fenced reserves where managers seek to mimic ecological processes in small landscapes. However, the effectiveness of this management approach has not been evaluated against meta‐population criteria. Given that meta‐population dynamics allows species living in fragmented habitats to persist, we evaluated how South Africa's lion population complies with meta‐population criteria using national audit data between 2010 and 2019 from 49 fenced, wild lion reserves. The small, fenced reserves holding wild lions fulfil the criteria for meta‐population functionality. However, this functionality was achieved through haphazard and uncoordinated management actions and not through a coordinated approach. Our main recommendation is to consider implementing a more coordinated meta‐population management approach. At the very least, meta‐population management guidelines should be reviewed and updated on a regular basis, regular audits should be conducted and periodic genetic evaluation of the meta‐population (every 10 years) should be instituted. We recommend incentivising lion managers to enhance the conservation of lions in South Africa within a meta‐population framework. We also recommend a focus on improving decision making and policy procedures that facilitates compliance with relevant legislation aimed at achieving high levels of lion conservation‐governance efficiency. South Africa's meta‐population approach to wild lion management in small, fenced reserves is effective at conserving lions and contributing to lion conservation more broadly. In an increasingly fragmented landscape, the need for human management actions to ensure persistence of large carnivores is likely to increase. A managed meta‐population approach of fenced (or unfenced, but geographically isolated) populations is a useful tool for conservationists to consider worldwide.

Effects of the 2014-2016 marine heatwave on Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska and implications for top-down forcing

Marine heatwaves can have rapid and wide-reaching biological and economic impacts. We explored the effects of a recent severe marine heatwave on Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska and Southeast Alaska using biennial counts of pups and non-pups from aerial surveys of terrestrial sites between 2013 and 2019. We combined count data with a bioenergetic model to explore the potential effects of Steller sea lion responses to the heatwave on prey populations. Pup production was anomalously low in the eastern and central Gulf in 2017 following the end of the heatwave in 2016, with a 33.5 and 17.4% reduction from 2015 values respectively. Based on the energetic costs of pregnancy and lactation, these reductions in pup production represent an average difference of 6121 metric tons of prey between 2015 and 2017. Non-pup counts were anomalously low in Southeast Alaska in 2017 and in the central and eastern Gulf in 2019. No effects were detected in the western Gulf, although they could have been masked by the variability in count estimates. Such changes in non-pup abundance had the potential to induce changes in predation pressure on the order of thousands to tens of thousands of metric tons of prey, even when responses were assumed to persist for a relatively short time (1 yr or less). In addition to these short-term effects, declining counts of non-pups from the eastern Gulf and Southeast Alaska occurred following the 2014-2016 heatwave, suggesting more lasting effects on Steller sea lion populations and top-down forcing from these regions.

The influence of community-based conservation governance arrangements on lion population in the amboseli ecosystem

The influence of community-based conservation governance arrangements on lion population in the amboseli ecosystem

Low genetic variability and high isolation of a post-harvest South American pinniped population as revealed by genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms

Abstract Otaria flavescens has been one of the most heavily exploited pinnipeds during the last 200 years, with depletion of ~90% in some colonies. After the prohibition on sealing in South America, populations stabilized except for the Uruguayan population, which showed a constant decrease. The underlying causes of its decline are unknown. This study used genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms to assess the variability and connectivity of some of the most overexploited sea lion colonies in the Atlantic Ocean. Our results revealed low allelic richness, nucleotide diversity, and heterozygosity in the Uruguayan population and evidence of complete isolation from the Argentinean populations under study. In contrast, the Patagonian populations showed a high degree of connectivity, which could explain their recovery and high levels of diversity at present. Our study highlights the critical situation of the Uruguayan sea lion population, emphasizing the need for maintaining continuous conservation efforts in the region.

Health and Welfare Benefits of Computerized Cognitive Enrichment in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) at the US Navy Marine Mammal Program.

Cognitive enrichment is becoming more prevalent in professional marine mammal facilities. Research with dolphins has suggested that such enrichment provides more welfare benefits than enrichment that does not incorporate cognitive challenge. However, there is little research supporting the use of cognitive enrichment as a means to improve the welfare of sea lions. Recently, a novel form of technological cognitive enrichment, the Enclosure Video Enrichment (EVE) system, was introduced to a population of California sea lions at the US Navy's Marine Mammal Program as a means to enhance welfare. Two of the initial focal animals introduced to EVE were selected based on their health history and the possible benefits of cognitive enrichment in improving health measures. To evaluate this, information regarding the animals' consumption of their offered diet was compared to other animals in the population of similar age and the absence of a similar health history. Subsequently, the total diet consumption of the targeted animals was evaluated in the two years prior to the introduction to EVE and compared to the total diet consumption during the initial 2 years of regular EVE sessions. There was a significant decrease in the number of days in which the sea lions did not consume their entire offered diet in the two years after implementing regular EVE sessions, an increase in participation and performance of voluntary husbandry behaviors, and a reduction in the number of days animals were clinically ill. This study provides evidence of cognitive enrichment as a management tool to improve animal health and welfare as well as performance in training sessions.

Genetic diversity of lion populations in Kenya: Evaluating past management practices and recommendations for future conservation actions.

The decline of lions (Panthera leo) in Kenya has raised conservation concerns about their overall population health and long-term survival. This study aimed to assess the genetic structure, differentiation and diversity of lion populations in the country, while considering the influence of past management practices. Using a lion-specific Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) panel, we genotyped 171 individuals from 12 populations representative of areas with permanent lion presence. Our results revealed a distinct genetic pattern with pronounced population structure, confirmed a north-south split and found no indication of inbreeding in any of the tested populations. Differentiation seems to be primarily driven by geographical barriers, human presence and climatic factors, but management practices may have also affected the observed patterns. Notably, the Tsavo population displayed evidence of admixture, perhaps attributable to its geographic location as a suture zone, vast size or past translocations, while the fenced populations of Lake Nakuru National Park and Solio Ranch exhibited reduced genetic diversity due to restricted natural dispersal. The Amboseli population had a high number of monomorphic loci likely reflecting a historical population decline. This illustrates that patterns of genetic diversity should be seen in the context of population histories and that future management decisions should take these insights into account. To address the conservation implications of our findings, we recommend prioritizing the maintenance of suitable habitats to facilitate population connectivity. Initiation of genetic restoration efforts and separately managing populations with unique evolutionary histories is crucial for preserving genetic diversity and promoting long-term population viability.

The Addis Ababa Lions: Whole-Genome Sequencing of a Rare and Precious Population.

Lions are widely known as charismatic predators that once roamed across the globe, but their populations have been greatly affected by environmental factors and human activities over the last 150 yr. Of particular interest is the Addis Ababa lion population, which has been maintained in captivity at around 20 individuals for over 75 yr, while many wild African lion populations have become extinct. In order to understand the molecular features of this unique population, we conducted a whole-genome sequencing study on 15 Addis Ababa lions and detected 4.5 million distinct genomic variants compared with the reference African lion genome. Using functional annotation, we identified several genes with mutations that potentially impact various traits such as mane color, body size, reproduction, gastrointestinal functions, cardiovascular processes, and sensory perception. These findings offer valuable insights into the genetics of this threatened lion population.

First systematic population survey of the desert‐adapted lions, Northwest Namibia

AbstractThe desert‐adapted lions (Panthera leo) of northwest Namibia inhabit arid and semi‐arid habitats, primarily within communal conservancy lands, which they share with semi‐nomadic pastoralists. Though of considerable conservation interest, no systematic population survey of these lions has previously been attempted. From 6 November 2022 to 6 January 2023, 45 trained surveyors covered approximately 40,000 km2 of conservancy and government‐managed lands, identifying individual lions by vibrissae (whisker‐spot) patterns and other demographic indicators. A systematic whole count, identifying every adult individual, was used to estimate population size. This approach drew upon the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of the Lion Rangers, community conservationists responsible for identifying and monitoring lions in their respective communal conservancies, as well as Regional Services staff of Namibia's Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT). The population is estimated between 57 and 60 individual adult lions and 14 cubs; this represents an inferred decrease of 46–60% over the past five years. At 0.11–0.12 lions/100 km2, this is the lowest recorded density for a free‐ranging, self‐sustaining lion population in Africa. Thirty‐six female and 21 male lions were found during the survey, yielding a sex ratio of 1 ♀: 0.58 ♂. While the population is considered stable and self‐sustaining despite recent declines, human‐lion conflict (HLC) remains the primary cause of lion mortality and recent drops in available prey are also concerning. Results serve as a baseline for future surveys, which will be an important part of monitoring this relatively small, widely dispersed population.

Effect of age and body condition score on reproductive organ size and sperm parameters in captive male African lion (Panthera leo): Suggesting a prime breeding age

Sexual maturity and body condition are interconnected in many mammals. For non-domestic felids held in human care, the effect of body condition on male fertility has not been studied, although obesity is a recognized problem for many species such as the African lion (Panthera leo) under captive conditions.Here, we assessed body weight, body condition via body condition score (BCS), reproductive organ appearance and size by ultrasonography and semen parameters as a function of age in a large population of captive male lions housed in different facilities in South Africa. Of 59 individuals (age range 2.5–10 years), we rated 21 (36 %) of the males (≥ 4 years) as highly obese (BCS 8–9). Semen collection via urethral catheter was successful in 49 males (83.0 %). Sperm were found in 44 males (74.6 %) across all age groups. Sperm motility and detailed sperm morphology was assessed in 42 and 18 lions, respectively.As expected, body weight and reproductive organ size increased with age, but only the testis size increased in proportion to BCS. Although our data are unbalanced, as older animals (already after five years of age) were more often obese, they suggest an optimum age and body condition for potential fertility with adequate physical maturity in male lions. Physical maturity appeared to be reached between the ages of three and five years, which is later than sexual maturity in male lions.Lions that far exceeded the normal body weight range and had a BCS of 8 or 9 had lower semen quantity and quality. Therefore, male lions in captivity are in prime breeding condition when physical maturity is combined with a BCS < 8.Our data contribute towards interpretation of fertility assessments in managed breeding programs for lions. Ultrasonographic appearance of the reproductive organs, BCS and semen parameters can help to identify and select breeding males.

Long-term remote monitoring of the rookery of Eumetopias jubatus (Pinnipedia, Otariidae) on Matykil Island in the Magadan State Nature Reserve (Russia)

The severe decline in the number of Eumetopias jubatus (hereinafter – Steller sea lion) almost throughout the entire range has drawn the public attention to monitor the abundance and increase in research activity of the species. In Russia, such a study has been conducted regularly since the early 2000s. It includes range-wide population surveys in the Russian Far East, marking newborn pups and monitoring their survival, movements, and reproduction success. In the first decade of the XXI century, observers conducted direct observations on rookeries during the breeding season. Since 2011 a novel survey method has been used, using custom-made autonomous high-resolution remote cameras, which have been taking images of the rookeries all year round. In 2013, six remote-camera units were installed in the Magadan State Nature Reserve (Russia) at the rookery of the Steller sea lion located on Matykil Island. The cameras gathered images during day time every 5–30 min. Maintenance of the photo recorders was carried out once per year in the summer period. A total of 721 927 photographs were collected during eight years of the surveys. Of them, 60 632 photographs were manually analysed in this research. It was found that the Steller sea lions use the rookery throughout the year, with the exception of March when a dense and wide ice cover in the study area prevents the Steller sea lions from reaching the shore of Matykil Island. During the year, two peaks of the Steller sea lion population abundance were observed, namely summer and, with a higher number of individuals, in autumn. In summer, females predominate on the rookery, while in the autumn-winter period, young animals (mainly males) and mature (8+ years) adults. In winter, the number of Steller sea lions was low on the shore. We have seen branded Steller sea lions on Matykil Island from all rookeries in the Russian Far East, with the exception of animals born on the Commander Islands. The highest number of migrant Steller sea lions appears in the autumn period, and it is represented mainly by young animals (1–3 years old) and semi-adults (males aged 4–7 years). In general, the data obtained from images collected by remote cameras during the entire year provided a detailed picture of the rookery used by Steller sea lions during the entire annual cycle of their life and monitored the seasonal population dynamics, the sex and age composition of animals on the shore, and the reproductive success of marked Steller sea lions. Currently, the use of autonomous remote cameras remains the only available method of year-round monitoring of the state and habitat use of hard-to-reach remote Steller sea lion’s rookeries.

Coexistence from a lion's perspective: Movements and habitat selection by African lions (Panthera leo) across a multi-use landscape.

Diminishing wild space and population fragmentation are key drivers of large carnivore declines worldwide. The persistence of large carnivores in fragmented landscapes often depends on the ability of individuals to move between separated subpopulations for genetic exchange and recovery from stochastic events. Where separated by anthropogenic landscapes, subpopulations' connectivity hinges on the area's socio-ecological conditions for coexistence and dispersing individuals' behavioral choices. Using GPS-collars and resource- and step-selection functions, we explored African lion (Panthera leo) habitat selection and movement patterns to better understand lions' behavioral adjustments in a landscape shared with pastoralists. We conducted our study in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, a multiuse rangeland, that connects the small, high density lion subpopulation of the Ngorongoro Crater with the extensive Serengeti lion population. Landscape use by pastoralists and their livestock in the NCA varies seasonally, driven by the availability of pasture, water, and disease avoidance. The most important factor for lion habitat selection was the amount of vegetation cover, but its importance varied with the distance to human settlements, season and time of day. Although we noted high levels of individual variation in tolerance for humans, in general lions avoided humans on the landscape and used more cover when closer to humans. Females showed more consistent avoidance of humans and stronger use of cover when near humans than did males. Connectivity of lion subpopulations does not appear to be blocked by sparse pastoralist settlements, and nomadic males, key to subpopulation connectivity, significantly avoided humans during the day, suggesting a behavioral strategy for conflict mitigation. These results are consistent with lions balancing risk from humans with exploitation of livestock by altering their behaviors to reduce potential conflict. Our study lends some optimism for the adaptive capacity of lions to promote coexistence with humans in shared landscapes.

Genomic analysis supports Cape Lion population connectivity prior to colonial eradication and extinction.

Cape lions (Panthera leo melanochaitus) formerly ranged throughout the grassland plains of the "Cape Flats" in what is today known as the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Cape lions were likely eradicated because of overhunting and habitat loss after European colonization. European naturalists originally described Cape lions as "black-maned lions" and claimed that they were phenotypically distinct. However, other depictions and historical descriptions of lions from the Cape report mixed or light coloration and without black or extensively developed manes. These findings suggest that, rather than forming a distinct population, Cape lions may have had phenotypic and genotypic variation similar to other African lions. Here we investigate Cape lion genome characteristics, population dynamics, and genetic distinctiveness prior to their extinction. We generated genomic data from 2 historic Cape lions to compare to 118 existing high-coverage mitogenomes, and low-coverage nuclear genomes of 53 lions from 13 African countries. We show that, before their eradication, lions from the Cape Flats had diverse mitogenomes and nuclear genomes that clustered with lions from both southern and eastern Africa. Cape lions had high genome-wide heterozygosity and low inbreeding coefficients, indicating that populations in the Cape Flats went extinct so rapidly that genomic effects associated with long-term small population size and isolation were not detectable. Our findings do not support the characterization of Cape lions as phylogeographically distinct, as originally put forth by some European naturalists, and illustrates how alternative knowledge systems, for example, Indigenous perspectives, could potentially further inform interpretations of species histories.

Lion Localizer: A software tool for inferring the provenance of lions (Panthera leo) using mitochondrial DNA.

The illegal poaching of lions for their body parts poses a severe threat to lion populations across Africa. Poaching accounts for 35% of all human-caused lion deaths, with 51% attributed to retaliatory killings following livestock predation. In nearly half of the retaliatory killings, lion body parts are removed, suggesting that high demand for lion body parts may fuel killings attributed to human-lion conflict. Trafficked items are often confiscated in transit or destination countries far from their country of origin. DNA from lion parts may in some cases be the only available means for examining their geographic origins. In this paper, we present the Lion Localizer, a full-stack software tool that houses a comprehensive database of lion mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences sourced from previously published studies. The database covers 146 localities from across the African continent and India, providing information on the potential provenance of seized lion body parts. Lion mtDNA sequences of 350 or 1,140 bp corresponding to the cytochrome b region can be generated from lion products and queried against the Lion Localizer database. Using the query sequence, the Lion Localizer generates a listing of exact or partial matches, which are displayed on an interactive map of Africa. This allows for the rapid identification of potential regions and localities where lions have been or are presently being targeted by poachers. By examining the potential provenance of lion samples, the Lion Localizer serves as a valuable resource in the fight against lion poaching. The software is available at https://lionlocalizer.org.

Population size and social structure of lions in a west African protected area

AbstractTo inform the conservation of the Regionally Critically Endangered West African lion, we studied lion population size and social structure in Niokolo Koba National Park (NKNP), Senegal. Calling station and camera trap surveys were conducted and opportunistic lion observations were documented from 2015 to 2020. The average lion density was calculated as 0.50 lion/100 km2 and the population size was estimated as 28–56 individuals. Average lion group size was 2.1 ± 1.45 lions (range 1–8 lions). There were no significant differences between observations of single individuals (43%), groups of two (22%), three (19%), four (4%) and more than four (5%) individual lions (X2 = 30.021, p‐value = 0.06452). Sex ratio showed a ratio of male:female of 1:1.1 to 1:2.8. About 13.59% of the lion population was composed of cubs while, respectively, 81.22% and 5.17% were adults and subadults. Based on the analysis of activity patterns, lions in NKNP are mainly nocturno‐crepuscular (18:00–01:00) and matutinal (06:00–08:00). Lion population size and density are still low in NKNP compared to earlier estimates from the same area, in the late 1990s. We therefore conclude that the conservation of lions in NKNP must be further improved to safeguard this population in the long term.