Linguistic Statements Research Articles

Linguistic Explanations of Black Box Deep Learning Detectors on Simulated Aerial Drone Imagery.

Deep learning has become increasingly common in aerial imagery analysis. As its use continues to grow, it is crucial that we understand and can explain its behavior. One eXplainable AI (XAI) approach is to generate linguistic summarizations of data and/or models. However, the number of summaries can increase significantly with the number of data attributes, posing a challenge. Herein, we proposed a hierarchical approach for generating and evaluating linguistic statements of black box deep learning models. Our approach scores and ranks statements according to user-specified criteria. A systematic process was outlined for the evaluation of an object detector on a low altitude aerial drone. A deep learning model trained on real imagery was evaluated on a photorealistic simulated dataset with known ground truth across different contexts. The effectiveness and versatility of our approach was demonstrated by showing tailored linguistic summaries for different user types. Ultimately, this process is an efficient human-centric way of identifying successes, shortcomings, and biases in data and deep learning models.

Statistical quality control based on control charts and process efficiency index by the application of fuzzy approach (case study: Ha'il, Saudi Arabia).

Fuzzy methods using linguistic expressions and fuzzy numbers can provide a more accurate examination of manufacturing systems where data is not clear. Researchers expanded fuzzy control charts (CCs) using fuzzy linguistic statements and investigated the current process efficiency index to evaluate the performance, precision, and accuracy of the production process in a fuzzy state. Compared to nonfuzzy data mode, fuzzy linguistic statements provided decision makers with more options and a more accurate assessment of the quality of products. The fuzzy index of the actual process efficiency analyzed the process by considering mean, target value, and variance of the process simultaneously. Inspection of household water meters in Ha'il, Saudi Arabia showed the actual process index values were less than 1, indicating unfavorable production conditions. Fuzzy methods enhance the accuracy and effectiveness of statistical quality control in real-world systems where precise information may not be readily available. In addition, to provide a new perspective on the comparison of urban water and sewage systems, the results obtained from fuzzy-CC were compared with various machine learning methods such as artificial neural network and M5 model tree, in order to identify and understand their respective advantages and limitations.

Finding the missing: using statement analysis to assist in missing persons cases

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address the complexity of missing persons cases and highlight the linguistic differences that arise in this type of crime. Missing persons cases are typically very complex investigations. Without a body, crime scene forensics is not possible, and police are often left only with witness and suspect statements. Forensic linguistics methods may help investigators to prioritise or remove suspects. There are many competing approaches in forensic linguistic analysis; however, there is limited empirical research available on emerging methods.Design/methodology/approachThis research investigates Statement Analysis, a recent development in linguistic analysis that has practical applications in criminal investigations. Real-world statements of individuals convicted of or found to be not guilty of their involvement in missing persons cases were used in the analyses. In addition, Behaviour Sequence Analysis was used to map the progressions of language in the suspects' statements.FindingsResults indicated differences between the guilty and innocent individuals based on their language choices, for example, guilty suspects in missing [alive] cases were found more likely to use passive language and vague words because of high levels of cognitive load associated with the several types of guilty knowledge suspects in missing persons cases possess. Of particular interest is the use of untruthful words in the innocent suspects’ statements in missing [murdered] cases. While typically seen in deceptive statements, untruthful words in innocent statements may result because of false acquittals.Originality/valueThis research provides some support for Statement Analysis as a suitable approach to analysing linguistic statements in missing persons cases.

PLENARY: Explaining black-box models in natural language through fuzzy linguistic summaries

We introduce an approach called PLENARY (exPlaining bLack-box modEls in Natural lAnguage thRough fuzzY linguistic summaries), which is an explainable classifier based on a data-driven predictive model. Neural learning is exploited to derive a predictive model based on two levels of labels associated with the data. Then, model explanations are derived through the popular SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) tool and conveyed in a linguistic form via fuzzy linguistic summaries. The linguistic summarization allows translating the explanations of the model outputs provided by SHAP into statements expressed in natural language. PLENARY accounts for the imprecision related to model outputs by summarizing them into simple linguistic statements and for the imprecision related to the data labeling process by including additional domain knowledge in the form of middle-layer labels. PLENARY is validated on preprocessed speech signals collected from smartphones from patients with bipolar disorder and on publicly available mental health survey data. The experiments confirm that fuzzy linguistic summarization is an effective technique to support meta-analyses of the outputs of AI models. Also, PLENARY improves explainability by aggregating low-level attributes into high-level information granules, and by incorporating vague domain knowledge into a multi-task sequential and compositional multilayer perceptron. SHAP explanations translated into fuzzy linguistic summaries significantly improve understanding of the predictive modelling process and its outputs.

МЕТАФОРИЧНЕ ПЕРЕНЕСЕННЯ ЯК ЗАСІБ УВИРАЗНЕННЯ НІМЕЦЬКОМОВНИХ СУСПІЛЬНО-ПОЛІТИЧНИХ ТЕКСТІВ

The article is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of metaphorization as one of the main means of objectification of new concepts, the creation of new nominations and the expression of evaluation by means of signs that are at the disposal of the German language system. The metaphor belongs, as well as derivation, to the most common ways of enrichment of the vocabulary, serving for the creation of both primary and secondary names in different spheres of language functioning. The author proved that a considerable amount of metaphors are created in the branches, that fall into the center of special public attention and become a topic for broad discussions in society, such as ecology, politics, economics, etc. The article expresses that these topics are most fully implemented in socio-political discourse, which integrates different types of discourses, forms its own system of means for semantic-pragmatic content, which serves to communicate between authorities and society. Scientific research analyzes the essence of the process of metaphorical nomination, studies the typology of metaphorized units, identifies the semantic features of metaphors used in German-language socio-political media discourse, outlines the functional purpose of metaphorized units in modern German texts. The attention in the article is also focused on the fact that the metaphorization process at the present stage of language development is largely stimulated by the influence of extralinguistic factors, such as processes of globalization, migration, exacerbation of environmental issues, the development of science and the influence of technologies on human life. On the other hand, this process is also determined by such intralingual factors as the desire for greater expressiveness of linguistic statements, linguistic economy.

Connecting Through Conversation: A Novel Video-Feedback Intervention to Enhance Long-Term Care Aides' Person-Centred Dementia Communication.

ObjectiveTo pilot test a novel communication intervention incorporating a video-feedback component on the person-centred dementia communication skills of long-term care aides.MethodsEffectiveness was assessed using a single group pre-test/post-test design. 11 care aide-resident dyads participated in the study. Objective outcomes included provider statements demonstrating linguistic (i.e., reciprocity, clarity/coherence, and continuity categories) and relational elements of person-centred dementia communication, measured via video-recorded observations of usual care interactions. Subjective outcomes of care aide communication confidence/competence, satisfaction with the resident relationship, relationship closeness, and self-reflection at work were measured using self-report questionnaires.ResultsIn respect to observed person-centred dementia communication skills, there was an increase in the use of linguistic statements in the reciprocity and continuity categories, as well as total linguistic statements overall. Relational statements and overall person-centred dementia communication (i.e., linguistic plus relational strategies) increased. Care aide-reported communication confidence and competence, relationship closeness with the resident, and self-reflection at work also increased after the communication intervention.DiscussionThe communication intervention showed promise as an effective approach to enhance person-centred dementia communication behaviours in care aides. These results support undertaking a larger trial to examine the intervention’s effectiveness more fulsomely.

Generalized two-tailed hypothesis testing for quantiles applied to the psychosocial status during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nonparametric tests do not rely on data belonging to any particular parametric family of probability distributions, which makes them preferable in case of doubt about the underlying population. Although the two‐tailed sign test is likely the most common nonparametric test for location problems, practitioners face serious drawbacks, such as its lack of statistical power and its inapplicability when information regarding data and hypotheses is uncertain or imprecise. In this paper, we generalize the two‐tailed sign test by embedding fuzzy hypotheses caused by uncertainty/imprecision regarding linguistic statements on fractions of underlying quantiles. By achieving this objective, (1) crucial limitations of the common two‐tailed sign test are mitigated/overcome, (2) various further strengths are incorporated into the sign test (e.g., meeting the trade‐off between point‐ and interval‐valued hypotheses, facilitated formulation of fuzzy hypotheses, standardization of membership functions), and (3) shortcomings that often come along with fuzzy hypothesis testing are avoided (e.g., higher complexity, fuzzy test decision, possibilistic interpretation of test results). In addition, we conduct a comprehensive case study using a real data set on the psychosocial status during the COVID‐19 pandemic. The results of the case study clearly indicate that the generalized two‐tailed sign test is preferable to the two‐tailed sign test with point‐ or interval‐valued hypotheses.

‘Bullshitting’ (as Understood by H. G. Frankfurt) on Law in the Media. From the Issue of Eristic Communication

The purpose of the article is to study the sources and analyse the effects of one way of manipulating information on law in the media, i.e. the phenomenon of bullshitting’ (saying nonsense, sharing pseudo-information) on law and its work. A linguistic statement that involves ‘bullshitting’ is an eristic technique in written or oral communication, expressed by the sender in a specific environment with the purpose of convincing the addressee (audience) that things are so and so and making an impression of being professional and masking the fact that the sender does not care what the truth is. The ‘bullshitter’ does not make attempts to make their input into the conversation factual; they say anything, without any conviction of the truth; they say what they do not have sufficient grounds to claim. This phenomenon is an important factor that makes building the prestige of law (also in Poland) more difficult. Without taking care of the organisation of professional communication about law from professionals to citizens, manipulating information on law will cause permanent damage to legal awareness. The author compares this eristic technique with statements with include lies, provides examples of ‘bullshitting’ on law by politicians and journalists, and deals with the circumstances and effects of the phenomenon.

Выбор решения на основе нечеткой игры с природой

In business process management, semi-structured or unstructured tasks are very common. The predominance of qualitative estimates of the parameters of such problems leads to the fact that the initial requirements for the selection of appropriate information technologies can be formulated primarily at a qualitative level. In this situation, estimates in the form of linguistic statements formalized by fuzzy sets can be quite informative. Uncertainty in the initial data, the presence of several alternative solutions make it possible to formalize the problem of choosing information technology for solving semi-structured business problems as a game with nature, which is understood as a certain combination of conditions, for example, the number of users and the intensity of their requests, assessed by fuzzy, linguistic statements. The aim of the proposed work is to develop a method for finding the most appropriate solution in conditions of indistinctness of the initial data that determine the choice on a variety of possible alternative information technologies. The proposed method for finding the best solution differs in that all the necessary initial estimates are set in the form of linguistic statements formalized by fuzzy sets, while the influence of fuzzy values of the probabilities of states of nature is taken into account through point estimates of fuzzy sets formalizing these values, and an integral estimate of possible solutions is obtained by transformation of the original fuzzy estimates of alternative solutions into the form of equivalent triangular fuzzy sets. In addition, the proposed method makes it possible to use various types of membership functions of fuzzy sets that formalize these estimates when setting fuzzy initial estimates for solving the problem, as well as to simplify the comparison of integral estimates of possible alternative solutions obtained in the form of fuzzy sets.

МОДЕЛЮВАННЯ СИСТЕМОЮ УПРАВЛІННЯ РИЗИКАМИ ІННОВАЦІЙНОГО ПРОЕКТУ

The statistical data of capital investment development by spheres of economic activity, distribution of capital investments by sources of financing for 2020 are analyzed. The technique of risk assessment of the innovative project taking into account quantitative and qualitative factors of influence for acceptance of the considered administrative decision is developed. The classification of risk factors influencing the investment phase on the size of the innovation project is developed. Risk management modeling is based on the use of fuzzy logic theory. The technique of fuzzy inference helps to calculate the predicted indicator in the form of a fuzzy set using the expression system "IF - THAT", which combines fuzzy terms of output and input variables using operations AND and OR, adopted in fuzzy set theory, and correspond to operations min and max. Linguistic statements, presented in tabular form, will correspond to the developed system of fuzzy logical equations, which characterizes the surface of the variables for the corresponding terms. The constructed membership functions will be used in modeling the intellectual support of management decision-making to choose the best option for an innovative project. To move from the resulting fuzzy set to a quantitative estimate, it is necessary to perform a defasification procedure, which means the conversion of fuzzy information into a clear form.

Energy Efficient and High PDR Wireless Sensor Networks using DCHS and FIS

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is forthcoming technology that afford assorted applications in hearth care, military, industrial and object tracking. WSN is a wireless device consisting of dispersed autonomous apparatus using sensors to collectively adviser physical or environmental conditions. This paper is presenting WSN using dynamic cluster head selection (DCHS) and fuzzy inference system (FIS) technique. The DCHS methods for WSN are put leading in procedure to solve the problem of the arbitrary cluster head selection that may lead to the extending description and irregular energy consumption in the cluster communication. FIS is a scheme that uses fuzzy inclination theory to atlas inputs to outputs. FIS is depend on mamdani rules and Fuzzy rules are a compilation of linguistic statements that characterize how the FIS should make a judgement regarding classifying an input or regulating an output. The proposed technique is implemented MATLAB 2012R and calculated average energy consumption and success rate packet delivery ratio.

Anatolian Languages as the Main Substrate of the Ukrainian Language

Until now, the Ukrainian linguistics has claimed that the main substrate for the Ukrainian language is North Iranian / Scythian. This dominant opinion was based on the well-known hypothesis of the Soviet school philologists and, in particular, of the Ossetian linguist Vaso Abaiti (better known as Vasyl Abaev (Abayev)) about the Iranian origin of the Scythian language. The scholar insisted that the Ossetian language descended from the hypothetical Scythian-Sarmatian one, and tried to explain the names of the largest waterways not only of the Black Sea region but also of the entire Ukraine and Eastern Europe using only Iranian-Ossetian words.The author of the article has prepared a number of materials to refute this false claim of modern researchers. In this respect, undoubtedly helpful is a unique artifact, a prehistoric inscription discovered ten years ago in the basement of a temple in the regional center, Zhytomyr. It turned out that the modern Ukrainian vocabulary contains a large number of words whose meanings and sounds are almost identical to the Anatolian glosses – Phrygian, Lydian, Thracian, Lycian A and Lycian B (Milyan), Carian, as well as the preceding languages – Hattic/Hattian and Luwian/Luvian. As evidenced by the lexical material of the Phrygian-Ukrainian dictionary, prepared by the author of the article, most of such related words (full cognates) are observed in these two languages – Phrygian and Ukrainian. This refutes another false linguistic statement which most closely relates Ancient Greek to Phrygian. It was made by linguists relying on forty Greek words that sound similar to Phrygian. The proposed study provides striking discoveries: more than a half of the Old Phrygian words known today have entered the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language. Why has it been concealed before? It turns out that the researchers have so far compared Phrygian only with Greek, Armenian, Old Macedonian, Albanian; however, for some reason, no one dared call it the closest relative of the Ukrainian language. This might have been prevented by the fact that, by Herodotus’ definition, Phrygian was considered “the most ancient language of the world”.

The Role of Syntactic Expressive Means in the English Language Economic Mass Media

This article studies expressive syntax as a type of stylistic devices and illustrates its use in publicistic style economic oral and written media reports. The relevance of the research is that syntactic expressive means have not been thoroughly studied and analyzed in economic mass media. The work aims to identify the techniques that apply syntactic expressive means to evoke emotiveness in economic media reports. This article also addresses the recurrence of usage of expressive syntax in written and oral speech involving economic discourse. Using the method of text analysis on the bases of theoretical linguistic statements evaluating functional style, media stylistics, and stylistic devices in the English language, we determined the diverse usage of expressive syntax in both videocasting and written articles. From analyzed syntactic expressive means, we identified the frequency and common usage of such syntactic expressive means as rhetorical question and simple repetition in oral and written reports. The sample analysis indicated that a paragraph in any economic report might restrain more than one occurrence of expressive syntax; these carry a manipulative function through psychological phenomena represented via syntactic expressive means.

Anatolian Languages as the Main Substrate of the Ukrainian Language

Until now, the Ukrainian linguistics has claimed that the main substrate for the Ukrainian language is North Iranian / Scythian. This dominant opinion was based on the well-known hypothesis of the Soviet school philologists and, in particular, of the Ossetian linguist Vaso Abaiti (better known as Vasyl Abaev (Abayev)) about the Iranian origin of the Scythian language. The scholar insisted that the Ossetian language descended from the hypothetical Scythian-Sarmatian one, and tried to explain the names of the largest waterways not only of the Black Sea region but also of the entire Ukraine and Eastern Europe using only Iranian-Ossetian words. The author of the article has prepared a number of materials to refute this false claim of modern researchers. In this respect, undoubtedly helpful is a unique artifact, a prehistoric inscription discovered ten years ago in the basement of a temple in the regional center, Zhytomyr. It turned out that the modern Ukrainian vocabulary contains a large number of words whose meanings and sounds are almost identical to the Anatolian glosses – Phrygian, Lydian, Thracian, Lycian A and Lycian B (Milyan), Carian, as well as the preceding languages – Hattic/Hattian and Luwian/Luvian. As evidenced by the lexical material of the Phrygian-Ukrainian dictionary, prepared by the author of the article, most of such related words (full cognates) are observed in these two languages – Phrygian and Ukrainian. Thus, another false linguistic statement is refuted which most closely relates Ancient Greek to Phrygian. It was made by linguists relying on forty Greek words that sound similar to Phrygian. The proposed study provides striking discoveries: more than a half of the Old Phrygian words known today have entered the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language. Why has it been concealed before? It turns out that the researchers have so far compared Phrygian only with Greek, Armenian, Old Macedonian, Albanian; however, for some reason, no one dared call it the closest relative of the Ukrainian language. This might have been prevented by the fact that, by Herodotus’ definition, Phrygian was considered “the most ancient language of the world”.

Reflections on an old problem: That of preserving the logical forms and symmetry

This paper is devoted to analyze and discuss some of the new aspects about the preservation of the logical forms appearing in ordinary reasoning and fuzzy logic. Considering a Basic Fuzzy Algebra (BFA) as the basic formal model for representing imprecise predicates, several classical properties of logical forms which can be not valid depending on the representation of the logical connectives in a BFA are studied. Special emphasis is put on the general symmetry property, or its absence in some logical forms that, in some particular cases and in some sense, can become symmetrical as they are, for instance, the linguistic negation, the law of perfect repartition, or the additive law of measures. In any case, the difference between what is supposed in a mathematical model and what can be checked in the reality cannot be forgotten since any reality, and the study of the ordinary reasoning in natural language is a clear example of that, is but an ‘observed reality’. Anyway, if what is in a mathematical fuzzy model is not always symmetrical, and since these models represent linguistic statements affected by imprecision and uncertainty, it can be concluded that, in general, neither plain language, nor commonsense or ordinary reasoning, show the same level of symmetry exhibited by the specialized language and the deductive reasoning allowing mathematical proofs.

A Proposal for a Decision-Making Tool in Third-Party Logistics (3PL) Provider Selection Based on Multi-Criteria Analysis and the Fuzzy Approach

The selection of a third-party logistics (3PL) provider is an important and demanding task for many companies and organizations dealing with distribution activities. To assist in decision making, this paper proposes the implementation of fuzzy logic. To design a fuzzy inference system (FIS), the first prerequisite is to determine a set of evaluation criteria and sub-criteria and to find the relationship between them. This task was solved by an extensive review of the literature and expert opinions on implementing the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach. The results obtained in the first part of the research, together with data collected from 20 3PL providers, were further used in the second part, which was related to the implementation of the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method. Finally, a decision-making tool for 3PL provider selection was designed as an FIS structure, where the inputs were the previously defined criteria and the output was a preference for 3PL selection. The fuzzy rules were generated on the basis of the collected empirical data, the preferences obtained by the TOPSIS method, and expert opinion using the Wang–Mendel method. The proposed fuzzy model is particularly suitable when input data are not crisp values but are provided descriptively through linguistic statements.

Modeling the Reliability of the Technical State of a Thermal Pump Installation Using a System of Fuzzy Logical Equations of Linguistic Variables

Heat pumps are one of the effective ways for increasing the energy efficiency of heat supply. Prediction of the technical state of heat pumps is necessary for uninterruptible heat supply of the consumers. In order to create an expert-modelling system for multifactorial analysis of the process of accumulation of influencing factors for the technical state of a heat pump, a mathematical apparatus based on the theory of fuzzy logic and a linguistic variable was used. This method gives an interconnected set of mathematical models, which allows using expert-linguistic information to predict the technical condition of the heat pump, depending on the factors that determine it. The functions of membership of fuzzy estimations of the factors influence on the predicted technical condition of the heat pump are constructed. The tree of the logical conclusion of the hierarchical relations of factors that may influence the state of the heat pump is developed. An assessment was made of the levels of linguistic variables that establish the relationship between factors affecting the technical state of heat pumps using the term-set system. Fuzzy matrices of knowledge were also built on the basis of the introduced qualitative terms, and linguistic statements were made, which correspond to the system of fuzzy logic equations that characterize the surface of the variables belonging to the corresponding terms. The methodology of complex factors for the expert of the project on the assessment of the technical condition of the heat pump is presented, which enables to obtain the appropriate management decisions taking into account quantitative and qualitative excitatory factors that influence the reliability and durability of the operation of the heat pump. In the future, the field tests will be conducted, which allow confirmation of the fuzzy logic model of the heat pump state

ZULUNESS ON TRIAL: RE-READING JOHN W. COLENSO'S 1874 LANGALIBALELE AND THE AMAHLUBI TRIBE: BEING REMARKS UPON THE OFFICIAL RECORD

AbstractAlthough John W. Colenso thought that he was merely acting as amicus curiae — a friend of the court — in compiling evidence to explain Langalibalele's supposed rebellion in 1873, the Bishop of Natal ended up writing a damning anti-colonial tract. This paper will attempt to show how this report — written for the Queen and Colenso's House of Lord peers — is not just an achievement in legal refutation and forensic analysis but that it was a linguistic and cultural statement about the working and limits of Zulu law as Colenso understood it through his interactions with his Natal converts. Although it is obvious that Colenso's audience was not moved by his supplications on Langalibelele's behalf, it is less obvious why those who thought of Colenso as a maverick and heretic should have ignored his thorough repudiation of cultural chauvinism. The paper will suggest that Colenso's Remarks were ignored precisely because to take them seriously would have meant abandoning the authoritarian underpinnings of the late 19th century colonial project.

Study of the Syntactic Structures of Direct Speech in Spanish and Chinese

Quote is one of the general linguistic phenomena. The direct speech and indirect speech are its two primary procedures. As the direct speech is universal and it exists in all languages, in this work we focus on its formal structures in two different languages, the Spanish and the Chinese. The study mainly includes two parts. The first part consists in clarifying theoretical questions about quote from speech acts theory. We illustrate that the minimum unit of the study is utterance, which contains a linguistic statement and a pragmatic modality. The second part is to investigate the direct speech’s formal structures in both languages, such as the syntactic relation (hypotaxis, parataxis or other discursive nature) between the introductory expression and the reproduced part; direct speech’s syntactic variants with a series of pronouns (así-como-cómo) and the different types of the structuralsuperpositions in the direct speech. The contrasts of the direct speech in these two languages mainlyreside in the orthography and the position of the reproductive framework. In the end, we can concludethat the characteristic of being universal not only reflects on its use, but also on its formal structures.

An Expert System for Assessing Technogenic Risks of Electrical Installations Using Temporal Logic

The article presents an expert system in which knowledge bases formalize technogenic risks in electrical installations of agricultural enterprises. The knowledge bases contain rules for the influence of risk factors on the value of the technogenic risk of the electrical installations. The rules are described as a set of fuzzy linguistic statements. Fuzzy linguistic statements can be temporal. Simple temporal statements are formed by application to a simple linguistic statement of one of the unitary operations of the past time “always in the past” or “at some time in the past” of temporal logic. Temporal composite statements are formed of simple statements using the binary fuzzy logical operations “AND,” “OR,” and “priority AND” as ligaments. Using the developed expert system, estimation of the risk of an accident at an electrical installation of AO Altaikraienergo Network Co. was carried out both without and with the use of temporal operators. In the first case, magnitude of the risk of an accident (basis) RB =2.3 × 10–4, which is evaluated as valid. In the second case (RT =1.4 × 10–3), an unacceptable (high) risk was obtained. Analysis of electrical facilities of the considered production facility also confirmed noncompliance with requirements of electrical safety. Our research showed that the proposed expert system for assessing technogenic risks of electrical installations using temporal logic gives a more adequate assessment of the technogenic safety of the considered production facility.