Linear Perspective Research Articles

A Differential Measure of the Strength of Causation

We present the problem of measuring the strength of a causal interaction, starting from the linear perspective and generalizing to a nonlinear measure of causal influence. The proposed measure of causal strength is interpretable and we demonstrate that it may be estimated efficiently using Gaussian process regression. We validate our results on several examples and connect our results to the existing causal inference literature.

Japonisme and the Birth of Cinema by Daisuke Miyao

Reviewed by: Japonisme and the Birth of Cinema by Daisuke Miyao Naoki Yamamoto (bio) Japonisme and the Birth of Cinema. By Daisuke Miyao. Duke University Press, 2020. xii, 210 pages. $99.95, cloth; $25.95, paper; $25.95, E-book. Daisuke Miyao's new book appears to be a very timely and provocative attempt to decipher the entangled relationships among Orientalism, early cinema, and Japanese modernization. The key term for his inquiry is "Japonisme," which first appeared in 1872 to designate the widespread obsession with "things Japanese" in the mid- to late nineteenth-century European art scene. Throughout the book, Miyao narrates a very informed and eye-opening story concerning "Japonisme-generated conversations and negotiations in the transnational flow of cinema during the period of global imperialism" (p. 8). It is well known that Japanese art, especially ukiyo-e woodblock prints that were initially used as wrapping paper for items imported from Japan, served as a major source of inspiration for impressionist and postimpressionist painters such as Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Vincent van Gogh. At the same time, early French films, especially those produced by or under contract with the Lumière Brothers have often been studied in comparison with impressionism. In spite of this, no in-depth study has yet been made into the equally significant link between Japonisme and Lumière films. The present book fills this gap in a way that is both empirically rich and theoretically stimulating. Drawing on Miyao's viewing of all 1,428 surviving Lumière films, it powerfully retrieves long-forgotten mutual influences between France and Japan from the very beginning of global film history. The book is divided into three chapters and an epilogue, with the chapters organized in such a way as to guide readers on a circular trip from Japan to France, then back to Japan, as we follow the global circulation of the discourses and practices of Japonisme. In the first chapter, Miyao suggests that "Lumière films need to be understood within their contemporary media ecology of photography, painting, and cinema, all under the sway [End Page 230] of the compositional principles of Japonisme and the new idea of a kinetic and corporeally grounded realism that arose from it" (p. 9). To producers of these visual media products, Japonisme meant more than a simple appropriation of exotic themes frequently appearing in Japanese art. Rather, it signified their serious learning of the principles and techniques that penetrated their beloved Japanese paintings. For this reason, Miyao argues, "[w]hat impressionist and postimpressionist painters valued most in ukiyo-e was the method of sketching and composition that not only captured moments and movements of the environment instantly but also physically mobilized the eyes of the spectator" (p. 10). It is easy to understand how Lumière cinematographers could readily accomplish the first task of instantaneously capturing living and moving objects with the aid of the movie camera's recording ability, but what about the second? Miyao's answer is that both impressionist painters and Lumière cinematographers frequently adopted a special compositional technique developed by famous ukiyo-e artists such as Hokusai and Utagawa Hiroshige. Alternatively termed "kinzō-gata-kōzu," "chūkei-datsuraku," and "en=kin-hō" by ukiyo-e specialists, this compositional technique intentionally stressed the contrast between the main object placed at the forefront (usually depicted with an extreme close-up) and the landscape and other small objects placed far in the background as if there were no middle ground in the frame. Because these two planes were usually drawn from two different perspectives—one in the newly imported Western linear perspective, and the other in the traditional "bird's eye" or "parallel" perspective—the technique also succeeded in creating a "heterogenous" or "equivocal" space in which the viewer's gaze is free to roam according to the viewer's subjective choices. This technique appeared to be well suited to French impressionists whose main enemy was academic painting and its uncritical reliance on linear perspective with a single, fixed vanishing point. Drawing on recent studies in the fields of psychology and physiology, impressionists and postimpressionists had already adopted the new idea that reality was composed of...

Geographical contours of the ecological civilization of Russia

The geographical environment and a person are in complex, contradictory, diverse relationships, where a person appears as a motivated social being, whose decisions and actions are mediated by the specifics of the spatial environment, the values of the social group, and the needs of the individual. Ecological civilization is a multi-valued concept with an intuitively perceived, but not scientifically formalized meaning, which in recent decades has received ideological and political predestination and practical implementation in Chinese transcription. In a linear perspective, the vector of progressive civilizational movement was designated in this way: from the primitive barbarism of the appropriating economy to the emergence of technology and language, from natural “getting used to” in the space of nature to an ever-decreasing dependence on natural conditions and biological resources to the auetoposis assertion of human life. For the practical implementation of the civilizational approach, some results of the use of a geographical algorithm for assessing wildlife in Russia are proposed. Wildlife is a special image, a philosophical concept, a fundamental idea, a geographical image, a practical constructivist paradigm, practically unknown to the scientific community of Russia. Quantitative information is given on the degree of conservation of wildlife, the maps show the dichotomy, the existence of cultural landscapes and urbanized territories and natural geosystems for the entire territory of Russia. The geographic contours of natural ecosystems in the physical-geographical countries and ecological-landscape macro-regions of Russia are shown.

The Autobiographical Hinge: Revealing the self in architectural drawing

Some argue that the tendency to ignore the self as an aspect of the relationship between architects and their drawings is a consequence of the hegemony of digital modes of representation, others that it is inherent to traditional perspectival and projective techniques. It is in this repressive context that architects struggle to consider their subjectivity in relation to the drawings they produce. This article aims to divert this subjective distance by proposing a method for revealing the unconscious forces that abide between architects and architectural drawings. Through a comparative analysis of this intermediate space with the psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott’s theory of the Transitional Object, the author considers his own relationship to perspective drawing and materializes this through the production of a drawing apparatus titled: the autobiographical hinge. Bilaterally, the conception of this drawing apparatus is founded on examples of visual art practice that challenge the repressive qualities of linear perspective, this includes the work of Penelope Haralambidou (2003); Lawrence Gowing (1965) and Marion . In a time of dissolved agency for the architect, this article presents a method through which to mine one’s own relationship to architectural drawing, through which a disturbance to those codified regimes occurs as a consequence of one’s own subjectivity being recognized.

The Stereographic Projection in The Works of Chin Kong Yee, A Malaysian Painter

The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of the stereographic projection within the artistic creation of a Malaysian artist, Chin Kong Yee (b.1973), and the graphical methods used to visually compose his artworks. Highlighting this vibrant interface between this branch of orthographic projections and art exemplifies his numerous and distinctive aesthetic creations and paintings. There is little known within the local art community about this type of work especially the stereographic projection applied to canvas. The local community of landscape artists use the principles of linear perspective of one-two vanishing point for the composition of their artworks, there is no other single artist like Kong Yee who uses the stereographic projection to map his surrounding landscape. The ideas discussed in this paper can enhance the understanding of Kong Yee’s works and stimulate an interest in arts in general.

A case study of heavy PM2.5 secondary formation by N2O5 nocturnal chemistry in Seoul, Korea in January 2018: Model performance and error analysis

Heterogeneous hydrolysis of dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) plays an important role in nighttime nitrate (NO3−) formation in urban areas, and sometimes influences the occurrence of heavy PM2.5 pollution the next day in the Seoul Metropolitan Area (SMA), Korea. Here, we discuss the heavy PM2.5 wintertime episode of January 13–15, 2018, which was mainly induced by nighttime N2O5 heterogeneous reaction in the SMA. In our case, we confirmed that nighttime N2O5 hydrolysis is the most critical factor in the rapid formation of aerosol nitrate at high levels during the night, which prevailed in the morning of the next day. Our Integrated Process Rate (IPR) analysis showed that nighttime nitrate production in the episode was almost solely attributable to N2O5 chemistry, with hourly mean production rates of 0.8 ± 0.4 μg/m3 per hour in SMA, which is comparable to the daytime nitrate photochemical production rates of 0.9 ± 0.5 μg/m3 per hour. We also carried out a series of assessment of N2O5–driven nitrate formation sensitivity, and relevant errors were quantified by applying different N2O5 uptake coefficients in the WRF-CMAQ model. The potential errors of nighttime-average nitrate concentrations induced by N2O5 uptake process were assessed from a linear perspective for the planetary boundary layer (PBL) variances caused by four different PBL parameterization schemes: YSU, ACM2, MYJ, and QNSE. The potential error ranges by N2O5 uptake process were analyzed to be 2.3 to 3.5 μg/m3 (~10% relative to the nighttime-average), while biases of PBL simulations from 4 parameterization schemes were 2.3 ± 1.0 μg/m3, showing similar ranges in our episode. Although N2O5–driven heavy PM2.5 episodes do not occur often in SMA, our findings suggest the importance of N2O5 chemistry in vigorous wintertime nitrate formation and operational prediction errors of such PM2.5 episodes, under the premise of enhanced PBL simulation capabilities.

Know Thyself, Dissect Thyself: A Genealogy of Neuroscience’s Pastoral Power through Anatomical Dissection and Illustration

ABSTRACT Coupling “know thyself” with anatomical illustrations produced a spatialized understanding of the self, providing preconditions for “brainhood,” the view that “we are our brains.” To picture oneself, whether in anatomical illustrations or neuroimaging, is to know thyself. This paper traces the historical development of the conflation of self-image and self-knowledge. First, I explore the Renaissance development of linear perspective. Second, I look at how the soul becomes spatialized in psychology as a science of the soul and its relationship to anatomical dissection. Third, I investigate the innovation of anatomical illustration and how it intersects with Renaissance visual culture. Finally, I show how these varied developments manifest “know thyself” in anatomical illustrations and its significance for how we see ourselves. I conclude that, according to the ideology of the neuro, we still “know thyself” through pictures of the body, but with neuroimaging as the new anatomical illustration.

Reinterpretasi Teks Keluaran 20:17 Untuk Memperkuat Pemberantasan Korupsi

This study presents an analysis of corrupt behavior from the perspective of the text of Exodus 20:17 and the constitution. This research aims to place the perspective of the Bible and the constitution in parallel. This study uses analytical and descriptive methods to develop thinking patterns related to the linear perspective of the Bible and the constitution as the foundation for the Corruption Eradication Commission and the Bible. This study concludes that the phrase do not covet in the text of output 20:17 is linear with a juridical perspective that coveting other people's legal property is a criminal offense.

Revisiting TAM2 in behavioral targeting advertising: A deep learning-based dual-stage SEM-ANN analysis

The study investigates the antecedents that affect consumers’ acceptance of behavioral targeting advertising (BTA) services by extending technology acceptance Model 2 (TAM2) with perceived risk. A two-stage PLS-SEM-artificial-neural-network (ANN) predictive analytic approach was adopted to analyze the collected data, of which PLS-SEM was first applied to test the hypotheses, followed by the ANN technique to detect the nonlinear effect on the model. A total of 475 usable self-administered questionnaires were collected, and the results showed that only the relationship between the image and perceived usefulness (PU) was not supported. As per Model B, the ranking of subjective norms (SN) and PU between the PLS-SEM and ANN model does not match each other, implying that hidden attributes may exist in affecting the role of SN and PU under the practical context of which the relationship between variables may not fully be explained by a linear perspective. The finding is beneficial for advertising practitioners and software developers who wish to optimize BTA results. Theoretically, the study extends TAM2 in the context of advertising, which is a neglected research area. Methodologically, the study is the first to apply TAM2 using the hybrid PLS-SEM-ANN in the context of advertising.

A Virtual Space Built on a Canvas Painting for an “Augmented” Experience to Catch the Artist’s Message

“Entering” a canvas to examine and learn about the work from unexplored points of view is an experiential “journey” in an environment reconstructed through the use and integration of innovative technologies, such as descriptive geometry and digital photogrammetry, solid modeling and immersive photography. Generating a “sense of presence” in the viewer means connecting it with immediacy to the artist’s message and grasping even the most subtle elements of the painting that are difficult to understand, such as architectural inconsistencies or the play of perspectives that, very often, bring out the situations scripted, characterized by discoveries that prelude to the aesthetic pleasure as the multiplicity of meanings and the “stylistic overcoding” of the work is revealed. The research hypotheses were applied to a case study, or to the splendid “Last Supper” by the Flemish artist Gaspar Hovic, a canvas painted in oil (late 15th century AD) and kept in the Matrice SM Veterana Church di Triggiano (BA), where the representation of the suggestive moment of Jesus with the Apostles is carried out through numerous symbols, in an evocative architectural context rich in details. The pictorial subject provides a series of very interesting ideas suitable for research of the role of perspective. The inverse method of linear perspective was used to reveal the plants and sections corresponding to the perspective space of the painting, used as the basis for the reconstruction of the 3D model of the entire scenic composition. Although the painting represents the apparently rigorous application of the perspective technique, by “entering” the canvas it is possible to observe some exceptions to the geometric rules deliberately introduced by the artist, thus making the perspective restitution process an effective interpretative act of the work.

Viewing Patterns and Perspectival Paintings: An Eye-Tracking Study on the Effect of the Vanishing Point.

Linear perspective has long been used to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on the picture plane. One of its central axioms comes from Euclidean geometry and holds that all parallel lines converge in a single vanishing point. Although linear perspective provided the painter with a means to organize the painting, the question is whether the gaze of the beholder is also affected by the underlying structure of linear perspective: for instance, in such a way that the orthogonals leading to the vanishing point also automatically guides the beholder’s gaze. This was researched during a pilot study by means of an eye-tracking experiment at the Lab for Cognitive Research in Art History (CReA) of the University of Vienna. It appears that in some compositions the vanishing point attracts the view of the participant. This effect is more significant when the vanishing point coincides with the central vertical axis of the painting, but is even stronger when the vanishing point also coincides with a major visual feature such as an object or figure. The latter calls into question what exactly attracts the gaze of the viewer, i.e., what comes first: the geometrical construct of the vanishing point or the visual feature?

The Cultural Heritage of Architectural Linear Perspective: The Mural Paintings in Nantang Church

This paper presents a contextual use of the innovative drawing techniques that involved architecture and painting in the Qing court during the first half of the eighteenth century. At this point architectural linear perspective in painting (quadratura) and stage design had become common fields of experimentation for the Chinese and Jesuit artists missionaries. In this conceptual context, Western quadratura was developed in China by Giovanni Gherardini. (1655–1729), and especially by Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766), who is remembered as an extraordinarily versatile architect–painter. The focus of this paper is on the “illusory mural paintings of architectural perspective in Nantang Church” (Beijing), which has now disappeared, and which spread the influence of the Western Renaissance. The imported Western linear perspective and the fundamentals of architectural drawing facilitated the systematization and dissemination of the quadratura as an unknown technique in China. Based on the text described by the contemporary scholar Yao Yuan Zhi, an original interpretation of the architectural perspective mural paintings in Nantang Church is proposed. These paintings provide an important case study of Sino-European collaboration in the eighteenth century from different points of view: the representation of the light in drawings and the fact that the concept of shadow in some respects was unknown to the Chinese artist.

Mega riverbed-patterns: linear and weakly nonlinear perspectives.

In this paper, we explore the mega riverbed-patterns, whose longitudinal and vertical length dimensions scale with a few channel widths and the flow depth, respectively. We perform the stability analyses from both linear and weakly nonlinear perspectives by considering a steady-uniform flow in an erodible straight channel comprising a uniform sediment size. The mathematical framework stands on the dynamic coupling between the depth-averaged flow model and the particle transport model including both bedload and suspended load via the Exner equation, which drives the pattern formation. From the linear perspective, we employ the standard linearization technique by superimposing the periodic perturbations on the undisturbed system to find the dispersion relationship. From the weakly nonlinear perspective, we apply the centre–manifold-projection technique, where the fast dynamics of stable modes is projected on the slow dynamics of weakly unstable modes to obtain the Stuart–Landau equation for the amplitude dynamics. We examine the marginal stability, growth rate and amplitude of patterns for a given quintet formed by the channel aspect ratio, wavenumber of patterns, shear Reynolds number, Shields number and relative roughness number. This study highlights the sensitivity of pattern formation to the key parameters and shows how the classical results can be reconstructed on the parameter space.

Identity work of individuals in disparate professions

I examined the identity work of 31 individuals who are simultaneously working in disparate professions (e.g., a church worker and an engineer). I found that such individuals typically experienced both identity conflicts and identity synergies. I also found that the identity work of such individuals involved synthesizing this dialectic between identity conflicts and identity synergies. My findings offer two theoretical insights. First, by showing the coexistence of identity conflicts and identity synergies, my study is different from previous studies that have predominantly examined the relationship between identities as a binary, i.e., as either conflicting or synergizing. Second and consequently, I offer a dialectical perspective to identity work as opposed to prior studies that have taken a linear perspective to identity work.

Partages de la Perspective

Abraham Bosse (c. 1604–76) was a well-known French printmaker and a zealous propagator of Desargues's perspectival technique, which basically was an elaboration of the linear perspective invented by Florentine painters of the fifteenth century. For a book of 1647 called The Universal Technique of M. Desargues, Bosse made an etching, untitled but commonly referred to as Les perspecteurs, in which we see an almost empty space with three well-dressed men placed at different distances and in different orientations. They seem to look for something to paint, since they are represented each with an “eye pyramid.” The top of the pyramid—Desargues called it “le rayonnement de la vue” (the radiation of the gaze)—is the point between the two eyes. That point is connected by straight lines to the four corners of the supposed visual field of the viewer. This pyramid is meant to help the artist to calculate the right proportions for the objects in his paintings.Emmanuel Alloa uses this image to illustrate a problem often associated with perspectivism in philosophy: in Bosse's etching, the men do not see one another; their gazes do not meet; each seems to live in a separate world. Those men embody the “banal” or “weak” conception of perspective that Gilles Deleuze criticizes. Instead of connecting people, the notion of perspective as an eye pyramid, a kind of tunnel, induces them to avoid encounter. It corresponds to the notion of perspective used to put an end to discussion by saying that we all have our different viewpoints, thereby dissolving a disagreement instead of learning from each other's standpoints.Contrary to the “perspectivers” depicted by the printmaker, Alloa asks whether we can try to “share perspectives.” By examining that question in response to Deleuze's challenge, Alloa develops a stronger version of perspectivism. He emphasizes that any perspective is a perspective of someone on something—on some thing, quelque chose, not all things, toutes choses—which means that a perspective, intrinsically limited, always cries out for completion by other perspectives. Inspired by Nietzsche (“the more eyes, various eyes we are able to use for the same thing, the more complete will be our ‘concept’ of the thing, our ‘objectivity’ ”), Alloa constructs in other ways and independently an epistemology akin to that of Sandra Harding and other proponents of “standpoint theory.” Against recent objections to a perspectivism that is too closely linked to relativism, Alloa advances a “new perspectivism” that demands and even celebrates plurality without abandoning the notions of truth and objectivity.

Implementation, Stakeholders` Participation and Sustainability of Public Projects in Kenya: A Conceptual Framework

Many public organizations are faced with numerous constraints that limit optimum and sustainable realization of their long-term aspirations. Similarly, implementation of public projects is often hampered by rigid bureaucracies that often edge out good opportunities for public and stakeholders to contribute to sustainable decisions. In response, most of innovative public organizations are quickly formulating guidelines and procedures for integrating stakeholders in project decisions making for greater responsiveness and sustainability. However, many public projects never live to full realization of sustainable changes. Questions arise on the strategies employed to ensure inclusive stakeholder participation in sustainable project implementation. Whereas the conceptualization of project sustainability is abstractly defined in literature, studies have linked implementation strategies to sustainability outcomes. But projects are implemented in very dynamic contexts. Hence the need for case-based evaluation of how project implementation connects to sustainability. Despite the indications that stakeholder participation can play a dualistic role in project sustainability, past empirical studies have assessed stakeholders` participation from linear perspective. This study seeks to fill the knowledge gaps by investigating the interaction between stakeholders` participation and the relationship between implementation and sustainability of public projects in Kenya.

Generative Models for Relief Perspective Architectures

The present essay investigates the potential of generative representation applied to the study of relief perspective architectures realized in Italy between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In arts, and architecture in particular, relief perspective is a three-dimensional structure able to create the illusion of great depths in small spaces. A method of investigation applied to the case study of the Avila Chapel in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome (Antonio Gherardi 1678) is proposed. The research methodology can be extended to other cases and is based on the use of a Relief Perspective Camera, which can create both a linear perspective and a relief perspective. Experimenting mechanically and automatically the perspective transformations from the affine space to the illusory space and vice versa has allowed us to see the case study in a different light.

Observational drawing in the brain: A longitudinal exploratory fMRI study

Observational drawing involves acquiring a number of basic drawing techniques and concepts. There is limited knowledge on how observational drawing skills are represented by brain responses. Here, we investigate the behavioral and functional changes behind students learning to draw in a longitudinal study on 45 participants by testing art students (n = 26) at the beginning and end of a 16-week observational drawing course compared to a matched group of non-art students (n = 19). Four novel tasks were used that involve making decisions about light sources, tonal value, line variation and linear perspective using task-based 7 T-functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). While exploratory in nature, we expected to find improvement on each task over time and functional changes in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum for the art students. Art students’ performance significantly improved on the light sources, line variation, and linear perspective tasks and functional changes were found for the line variation, linear perspective, and tonal value tasks. Using whole brain analyses diffuse functional changes were discovered including prefrontal cortex areas and cerebellum. Brain areas involved in cognitive processing, including attention, decision making, motor control, top-down control, visual information processing, and working memory all functionally changed with experience. These findings demonstrate some of the first functional changes in the brain due to training in the arts and have implications for pedagogy and mental health.

Visual art history and the psychology of perception: Perspectivism and its 20th century abandonment in the visual arts and in Gibson's ecological psychology.

The development of linear perspective in the early 15th century and the discovery of the retinal image two centuries later became cornerstones of an approach to visual perception theory that eventually took shape primarily in the hands of British Empiricist philosophers. Even as this approach has dominated perceptual theory to the present day, the perspectivist influence on pictorial representation within the visual arts steadily diminished over time. Its decisive break with perspectivism came in the early 20th century with transformative 19th century changes in the sciences and technology. Collectively, these events elevated process and change over fixity and stasis, and ultimately led to the collapse of the distinction between space and time in the physical sciences. Even so, approaches to visual perception in psychology remained remarkably untouched by these occurrences until the 1960s when the experimental psychologist James Gibson drew upon them to challenge the legacy of perspectivism and the visual image and their effect on perceptual theory. His ecological approach to perception recognizes animacy as the essential functional property of living things, and in doing so, conceptualizes seeing as a perception-action process. From this stance, Gibson like the visual artists earlier in the century rejected the assumption that visual perception is best characterized as the capturing of static images. Jointly and yet independently, both efforts loosened the grip that perspectivism and the visual image have maintained on the arts and on visual perception theory, respectively, bringing 19th century scientific advances into 20th century psychological thought.

Long-term effectiveness of reverse linear perspective markings on crash mitigation in car-following: Evidence from naturalistic observations

Perceptual markings on roads are verified with short-term effectiveness for accident prevention. However, the long-term performance of them is seldomly investigated, which unintentionally impedes its more widely recognition and application as a low-cost and readily achievable countermeasure. Also, the previous perceptual markings were only tested for speed reduction effect, little is known concerning their influence on headway adjustment. Given this, in this study, we investigated the short-, medium-, and long-term performance of the reverse linear perspective markings (RLPMs) on driving behaviors and safety benefits in car-following. The RLPMs were a form of markings pattern that can produce reverse linear perspective visual information on the lane and lead to distance underestimation. The RLPMs were permanently installed on a straight and a curve segment of a freeway in China, and the naturalistic vehicle flow data one day, four months, one year, two years, and three years after the installation of the RLPMs were collected. The statistical analyses of general and sectional relative differences of speed, distance headway and time headway suggest that 1) the speed reduced and distance and time headways increased in short-, medium-, and long-term as compared with the baseline on both the straight and curve segments; 2) the long-term performance of RLPMs significantly weakened as compared with the short-term performance, yet sustained to 0.50 m/s in speed reduction, 3.77 m in distance headway increase, and 0.097 s in time headway increase on average within the observations in one year and above on the straight segment; similar sustained performance of 0.47 m/s in speed reduction, 2.60 m in distance headway increase, and 0.072 s in time headway increase were observed on the curve segment; 3) the RLPMs were tested to have positive and relatively endured effectiveness on mitigating crash risk in car-following measured by two surrogate safety indicators based on time-to-crash (TTC) and deceleration rate to avoid a crash (DRAC). The findings of this study suggest the RLPMs could be an especially applaudable form of perceptual markings as they are relatively effective in the long-term and are multifunctional in intervening speed, distance, headway, and crash risk. This study also emphasizes the challenge of more field tests and observations on the long-term performance of the perceptual markings, and the thorough considerations of the visual perception mechanism behind the markings to achieve an alternative solution to the long-term issue.