Line Elements Research Articles

A Novel Numerical Method for Geothermal Reservoirs Embedded with Fracture Networks and Parameter Optimization for Power Generation

Geothermal recovery involves a coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) process in fractured rocks. A fluid transient equilibrium equation, considering thermal conduction, convection, and heat exchange, is established. The evolution of the reservoir permeability and the variance in the fracture aperture due to a change in the stress field are derived simultaneously. THM coupling is accomplished through iterative hydromechanical and thermo-hydro processes. To overcome the difficulty of geometric discretization, a three-dimensional THM coupler model embedded with discrete fracture networks, using a zero-thickness surface and line elements to simulate fractures and injection/production wells, is established to evaluate the geothermal production. The reliability of the method is verified by a case study. Then, this method is applied to evaluate the influence of the geometric topological characteristics of fracture networks and the fracture aperture on the reservoir temperature evolution and heat extraction effectiveness. The results show that the power generation efficiency and geothermal depletion rate are significantly affected by the injection–production pressure. Injection wells and production wells with pressures higher than the initial fluid pressure in the fractures can be used to significantly increase power generation, but the consumption of geothermal energy and loss of efficiency are significant and rapid. To achieve better benefits for the geothermal recovery system, an optimization algorithm based on simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation (SPSA) is proposed; it takes the power generation efficiency as the objective function, and the corresponding program is developed using MATLAB to optimize the position and pressure values for each production well. The results show that the heat transfer for the entire EGS reservoir becomes more uniform after optimization, and the heat transfer efficiency is greatly improved.

Stochastic simulations of self-organized elastogenesis in the developing lung.

In the normal lung, the dominant cable is an elastic "line element" composed of elastin fibers bound to a protein scaffold. The cable line element maintains alveolar geometry by balancing surface forces within the alveolus and changes in lung volume with exercise. Recent work in the postnatal rat lung has suggested that the process of cable development is self-organized in the extracellular matrix. Early in postnatal development, a blanket of tropoelastin (TE) spheres appear in the primitive lung. Within 7 to 10 days, the TE spheres are incorporated into a distributed protein scaffold creating the mature cable line element. To study the process of extracellular assembly, we used cellular automata (CA) simulations. CA simulations demonstrated that the intermediate step of tropoelastin self-aggregation into TE spheres enhanced the efficiency of cable formation more than 5-fold. Similarly, the rate of tropoelastin production had a direct impact on the efficiency of scaffold binding. The binding affinity of the tropoelastin to the protein scaffold, potentially reflecting heritable traits, also had a significant impact on cable development. In contrast, the spatial distribution of TE monomer production, increased Brownian motion and variations in scaffold geometry did not significantly impact simulations of cable development. We conclude that CA simulations are useful in exploring the impact of concentration, geometry, and movement on the fundamental process of elastogenesis.

Eye movements are made to the centre of gravity of texture-defined targets

Saccadic localisation of targets of various properties has been extensively studied, but rarely for texture-defined figures. In this paper, three experiments that investigate the way information from a texture target is processed in order to provide a signal for eye movement control are presented. Participants made saccades to target regions embedded in a background structure, and the saccade landing position and latency were measured. The textures comprised line elements, with orientations of the lines configured to form the figure and ground. Various orientation profile configurations (Block, Blur, and Cornsweet), were used in order to measure the role of edge profiles in driving eye movements and producing salience. We found that in all cases the visual system is in fact able to effectively segregate a texture figure from the ground in order to accurately plan a saccade to the target-figure. While saccadic latency was the highest for the Blur profile, the mean saccadic landing position was mostly unaffected by the various profiles (Experiment 1). More specifically, we showed that saccades were directed to the centre-of-gravity of the target (Experiment 2). We also found that figures with information of orientation contrast at both the edge and centre of figure (i.e. Block) produced the highest level of saliency in attracting eye movements (Experiment 3). Overall, the results show that saccades are planned on the representation of the whole target shape rather than a local salient region based on orientation contrast cues, and that the various texture profiles were important only to the extent that they affected the time to programme a saccade.

Systematic characterization for RF small-signal parameter extraction of 28 nm FDSOI MOSFETs up to 110 GHz

A systematic RF characterization and small-signal parameter extraction for 28 nm fully depleted silicon on insulator (FDSOI) MOSFETs is presented in this paper. Two-step and hybrid de-embedding methodologies have been applied and compared for the accurate de-embedding of the on-chip RF test pads and access interconnect line elements. To avoid the accumulated error from the de-embedding for the small signal model of the FDSOI MOSFET, an error check criterion is adopted and utilized. Then, the complete extrinsic and intrinsic small-signal parameters of the device were extracted at multi-bias points based on the combination of direct extraction and linear regression approaches. For the extrinsic parameter extraction, the substrate-related parasitic elements and the extrinsic resistance components have been extracted. For the intrinsic small-signal parameter extraction, a complete model is presented and applied for direct extraction of the small-signal parameters. To verify the validity of the proposed modeling approach and the employed small-signal model, the S-parameters of a 28 nm FDSOI NMOS device with a 16 × 1 μm gate width were measured and characterized. From the comparison of the measured and modeled data, it is found that the proposed de-embedding and small-signal model provide an accurate characterization of RF parameter extraction for the FDSOI MOSFETs up to 110 GHz.

A transposable element atlas of aggressive B‐cell non‐Hodgkin lymphomas defines novel classifications of Burkitt lymphoma independent of EBV status

Introduction: Clinical and pathological heterogeneity in aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas may be driven by several mechanisms of oncogenesis, such as translocations involving the immunoglobulin locus and proto-oncogenes, the ‘cell-of-origin’ from the germinal center (GC), and viral associations. Previous classifications of B-cell lymphomas have been defined by one or more of these characteristics and transforming events. However, transposable elements (TEs), which make up roughly half of the human genome and have key regulatory functions, have been previously overlooked in both the healthy GC and in B-cell lymphomas. We hypothesized that unique TE signatures, which may in part be driven by human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), would allow a novel categorization of B-cell lymphomas. Here we present a comprehensive, locus-specific atlas of TE expression in healthy GC B cells, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-positive and negative Burkitt lymphoma (BL), and follicular lymphoma (FL). Methods: We obtained RNA-seq data from 529 DLBCLs belonging to the TCGA and NCICCR cohorts, 113 sporadic and endemic BL, and 12 FL from the CGCI cohort for gene and locus-specific TE quantification. RNA-seq data from sorted cells from the healthy GC were obtained from two recent studies (Holmes et al., 2020; Agirre et al., 2019). TEs were quantified with Telescope, which addresses the computational challenges of repetitive and interspersed TE reads, and low read counts using an expectation-maximization algorithm. We used STAR for indexing and alignment, HTSeq for quantifying EBV viral reads in endemic BL samples, DESeq2 to identify differentially expressed TEs, and LRT, Boruta, and Lasso for feature selection. Results: TE-driven clustering of healthy B cells showed that HERVs could independently distinguish stages of B cell differentiation and specific GC subsets, with plasmablasts and bone marrow plasma cells having the highest number of differentially expressed HERVs. We found HERV loci of interest upstream of POU5F1B and MYC that can differentiate plasmablasts from other GC cells. Furthermore, we describe a map of locus-specific TE expression in DLBCL, BL, and FL. Strikingly, we find that BL can be subdivided into three HERV-driven clusters, which are not obtained with gene-only clustering, and identify 4 HERV loci sufficient to distinguish between clusters. Clusters are independent of EBV status, clinical variant, location of MYC translocation, and display a high number of differentially expressed LINE elements, lncRNAs, and snoRNAs. Conclusions: Here, we report an atlas of TE expression in BL, DLBCL, and FL, and provide evidence for disease-specific changes in TE expression in B-cell lymphomas. TEs that are selectively expressed in lymphoma subtypes provide opportunities for novel subclassification that may have biological and pathological relevance. The research was funded by: The work was supported in part by US National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant CA260691 (DFN), and UM1AI164559 (DFN). MLB is supported in part by the Department of Medicine, Fund for the Future program at Weill Cornell Medicine sponsored by the Elsa Miller Foundation. J.L.M. was supported in part by a Medical Scientist Training Program grant to the Weill Cornell–Rockefeller–Sloan Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program (T32GM007739). Keywords: Aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Bioinformatics, Computational and Systems Biology, Pathology and Classification of Lymphomas No conflicts of interests pertinent to the abstract.

Seismic fragility analysis of low-rise unreinforced masonry buildings subjected to near- and far-field ground motions

Unreinforced masonry (URM) is considered one of the most cost-effective structural typologies for low-rise buildings in seismic regions. Near-field (NF) ground motions are sometimes characterized by high-velocity pulses that are typically more destructive than far-field (FF) seismic events. Therefore, a seismic fragility analysis of low-rise URM building typologies subjected to NF and FF seismic events was performed. Four URM walls were chosen, and nonlinear models of the walls were developed based on the double-modified, multiple vertical line element model (DM-MVLEM). The zero-moment coefficient was used to determine the effective uncracked section length of a pier. This parameter must be calculated for each pier of a perforated URM wall to derive the maximum shear strength of the piers used in a nonlinear model development process. A simplified analytical method was proposed to obtain the zero-moment coefficient factor of piers by performing linear static analysis on nine perforated walls and regression analyses of the results. Subsequently, nonlinear pushover analysis was performed to derive the capacity curves, and the damage limit states were defined for each model according to the Eurocode 8 standard. Subsequently, incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was performed for each case study by applying FF and NF ground motions. Finally, fragility curves were developed based on the IDA results for each damage limit state. The susceptibilities of one- and two-story URM walls subjected to FF and NF seismic events were investigated by examining the derived fragility curves.

Discovery of non-reference processed pseudogenes in the Swedish population.

The vast majority of the human genome is non-coding. There is a diversity of non-coding features, some of which have functional importance. Although the non-coding regions constitute the majority of the genome, they remain understudied, and for a long time, these regions have been referred to as junk DNA. Pseudogenes are one of these features. A pseudogene is a non-functional copy of a protein-coding gene. Pseudogenes may arise through a variety of genetic mechanisms. Processed pseudogenes are formed through reverse transcription of mRNA by LINE elements, after which the cDNA is integrated into the genome. Processed pseudogenes are known to be variable across populations; however, the variability and distribution remains unknown. Herein, we apply a custom-designed processed pseudogene pipeline on the whole genome sequencing data of 3,500 individuals; 2,500 individuals from the thousand genomes dataset, as well as 1,000 Swedish individuals. Through these analyses, we discover over 3,000 pseudogenes missing from the GRCh38 reference. Utilising our pipeline, we position 74% of the detected processed pseudogenes-allowing for analyses of formation. Notably, we find that common structural variant callers, such as Delly, classify the processed pseudogenes as deletion events, which are later predicted to be truncating variants. By compiling lists of non-reference processed pseudogenes and their frequencies, we find a great variability of pseudogenes; indicating that non-reference processed pseudogenes may be useful for DNA testing and as population-specific markers. In summary, our findings highlight a great diversity of processed pseudogenes, that processed pseudogenes are actively formed in the human genome; and that our pipeline may be used to reduce false positive structural variation caused by the misalignment and subsequent misclassification of non-reference processed pseudogenes.

Noncommutativity and physics: a non-technical review

We give an overview of the applications of noncommutative geometry to physics. Our focus is entirely on the conceptual ideas, rather than on the underlying technicalities. Starting historically from the Heisenberg relations, we will explain how in general noncommutativity yields a canonical time evolution, while at the same time allowing for the coexistence of discrete and continuous variables. The spectral approach to geometry is then explained to encompass two natural ingredients: the line element and the algebra. The relation between these two is dictated by so-called higher Heisenberg relations, from which both spin geometry and non-abelian gauge theory emerges. Our exposition indicates some of the applications in physics, including Pati–Salam unification beyond the Standard Model, the criticality of dimension 4, second quantization and entropy.

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF THE OPERATION OF AUDIO FREQUENCY (NO JUNCTION) AND JUNCTION RAIL CIRCUITS

Rail circuits are the basic elements of modern railway automation and telemechanics systems, performing the functions of track sensors and telemechanical channels. It is shown that the calculation of their operating boundary conditions becomes more complicated with the application of junctionless audio frequency rail circuits. The analysis of track circuits consists of studying the changes in their operation in various modes when the circuit parameters are changed. During the analysis, the optimal values of the parameters of the circuit elements and the frequency of the power source are determined for the given operating conditions. An analysis of the factors affecting the operating currents and voltages of such rail circuit schemes has been carried out. When analyzing and calculating a track circuit, it is assumed that the track line and equipment elements are linear, that is, their parameters do not depend on the flowing currents. To simplify the calculations, the track circuit is represented by the corresponding mathematical model (equivalent circuit) for each mode. Depending on the type of equivalent circuit used, four-pole and multi-pole models are distinguished. At the same time, the analysis and reporting of jointed rail circuits are carried out. Based on their results, the directions that allow for more accurate modeling of the operating modes of the circuits of the non-joint audio frequency rail circuits have been determined. Keywords: Rail circuits, train traffic safety, audio frequency (no junction) track circuits, junction rail circuits, signaling system, track sensors, mathematical model, remote conditioning monitoring.

Triple bottom line aspects and sustainable supply chain resilience: A structural equation modelling approach

The purpose of this paper is to investigate which of sustainability elements, in the context of triple bottom line (TBL), are used to build sustainable supply chain resilience. This paper presents a new body of knowledge and contribution to the literature by relating the triple bottom line (TBL) context to the building of sustainable supply chain resilience using structural equation modelling. The research were used to understand that individual sustainability factors matter and play a role in the context of supply chain resilience. A survey questionnaire was designed to collect this data from the research respondents. To statistical analysis was first Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) conducted and used, then for the analysis and interpretation structural equation model. The findings indicate that individual sustainability factors matter and play a role in the context of supply chain resilience. A number of previous studies have developed broad catalogues of sustainability factors influencing supply chains, however, to date no convincing evidence has been presented as to which of the range of elements identified, and how they influence supply chain resilience building. Despite the large number of publications on sustainable supply chain and resilience building, there is still a gap and lack of proper consideration of TBL-related criteria as elements that can determine mechanisms for building supply chain resilience in the context of sustainable development. This paper operationalizes a using the structural research model to using a structural research model to investigate how and in which relationships the different elements of the triple bottom line influence the resilience of supply chains.

On black hole surface gravity

We analyze the properties of the black hole surface gravity by using an alternative approach based upon the use of light surfaces that are represented by certain characteristic frequencies. To this end, we rewrite the Kerr line element in terms of the characteristic frequencies, which allows us to obtain copies of the Kerr geometries (black hole–clusters) as the parameters vary. In particular, we replace the spin parameter a=J/M with the corresponding characteristic frequencies so that the line element describes only black holes. This new representation is particularly adapted to analyze how the surface gravity behaves as the black hole passes from one state to another. It turns out that the spins a={sqrt{3}}/{2} M and a=1/sqrt{2} M for black holes and a/M=sqrt{9/8} for naked singularities are of particular relevance for the analysis of the surface gravity properties.

An equivalent line element approach for free surface flow through two-dimensional rock mass including fracture networks

In this paper, an equivalent line element method is established to analyze seepage problems with free surface through two-dimensional rock mass, including fracture networks. Low-permeablity rock matrix is characterized by the line elements as well as the high-permeablity fracture networks. Unlike the conventional equivalent continuum model, water flow in a rock mass is restricted to the line elements, and the equivalent hydraulic conductivity is determined according to Darcy's law and flux equivalence principle. As a result, uniform expressions of governing equations and boundary conditions are formulated, and the corresponding numerical procedure is developed by introducing the local coordinate and continuous Heaviside function. Satisfactory agreements with the existing test and numerical data verify this proposed line element method. The numerical solutions on the fractured slope indicate that the geological features of fractures have a substantial effect on locating the free surface. In addition, the proposed line element method can efficiently achieve accurate results with less computing time, iteration, and storage.

Analytic solutions for displacements in quantum-wire structures

Quantum wires (QWs) and quantum dots (QDs) have been widely applied in semiconductor devices due to their excellent mechanical, electronic, and optical properties. Faux and Downes [J. Appl. Phys. 82 (1997) 3754–3762] have obtained the closed-form solutions for strain distributions produced by QWs, whose cross section is composed of any combination of line elements and circular arcs. In this paper, Eshelby's inclusion model is established to simulate QWs and the closed-form solutions for the resultant displacements are obtained. By employing the method of Green's function, the displacement solutions may be formulated as area integrals and then converted into contour integrals along the boundary of the QW. The present study complements Faux and Downes' work and provides an efficient shortcut for analyzing the displacements of a QW, whose boundary may be discretized into line segments and circular arcs.

Biot-Savart Law for Determination of Speed of Particle Beyond the Speed of Light

This paper presents the modification of Biot-Savart law that thoroughly put to calculate magnetic field at any point in the space due to motion of charge in a complete circuit and further applies to determine velocity of particle faster than the speed of light. The modified Biot-Savart law provides complete mathematical result as given by ordinary Biot-Savart law, but most importantly, do not involve the need of derivative, integration of line element. In order to derive the relation ( among electric field ( magnetic field (( of electromagnetic wave, Biot-Savart law is given by formula B= , Where be angle between direction of velocity v of moving charge and position vector of given point where magnetic field has to be determined. This formula is applicable to address the question of how is it possible to achieve velocity of particle in excess of C and to open a discussion towards a new way of acquiring speed of particle beyond speed of light, namely C , Although, there is popular statement "nothing can move faster than speed of light". In this highly controversial statement, the specific purpose is not to comprises the merits of existing Biot-Savart law, but rather to introduce a concise and careful reasoned account of Biot-Savart law to propagate particle faster than speed of light.

THE INFLUENCE OF PARAMETERS OF EARTHMOVING MACHINES ON THE DESIGN SOLUTIONS OF BARRETTE PILES

The article deals with the analysis of publications on the arrangement of barrette foundations. It indicates that the bearing capacity of a barrette is determined mainly by the resistance behind its lateral surface, and if it is larger, maybe, it will increase the bearing capacity of the barrette. The use of barrettes with a cross-sectional shape is more relevant than rectangular (square) one. Nowadays, rectangular (square), X-shaped, T-shaped, L-shaped, H-shaped, Y-shaped and C-shaped barrettes can be used in construction. The geometric dimensions of the barrettes depend on the size of a grab unit or a milling unit. A theoretical study of the parameters of the most common types of earthmoving machines, namely a hydraulic grab and a hydromill, was carried out. The technical characteristics of hydraulic grabbers were analyzed: KHD series (CASAGRANDE S.P.A.), GB series (BAUER Maschinen GmbH), HSG series (LIEBHERR Maschinen GmbH), GH series (SOILMEC S. P.A.) and technical characteristics of hydromills: FD series (CASAGRANDE S.P.A.), BC series (BAUER Maschinen GmbH), LSC series (LIEBHERR Maschinen GmbH), SH series (SOILMEC S.P.A.). The intervals of variations were determined in the geometric dimensions of a single gripper, which is arranged with the help of a grab unit and milling unit. It allowed to determine the possible variations in the geometric dimensions of rectangular (square), X-shaped, T-shaped, L-shaped, H-shaped, Y-shaped, and C-shaped barrettes with cross-sectional dimensions. According to the obtained results, the width of a separate linear element of the barrette can vary from 420 to 1800 mm during the use of a grab unit and from 64 to 2000 mm during the use of a milling unit. The length of a single line element of barrette can vary from 2200 mm to 4200 mm during the use of a grab unit and from 2200 mm to 3200 mm during the use of a milling unit. The obtained results will allow to optimize the design process of barrette foundations and avoid additional specification of their dimensions at the installation stage.

Modified general relativity and dark matter

Modified General Relativity (MGR) is the natural extension of General Relativity (GR). MGR explicitly uses the smooth regular line element vector field [Formula: see text], which exists in all Lorentzian spacetimes, to construct a connection-independent symmetric tensor that represents the energy–momentum of the gravitational field. It solves the problem of the nonlocalization of gravitational energy–momentum in GR, preserves the ontology of the Einstein equation, and maintains the equivalence principle. The line element field provides MGR with the extra freedom required to describe dark energy and dark matter. An extended Schwarzschild solution for the matter-free Einstein equation of MGR is developed, from which the Tully–Fisher relation is derived, and the gravitational energy density is calculated. The mass of the invisible matter halo of galaxy NGC 3198 calculated with MGR is identical to the result obtained from GR using a dark matter profile. Although dark matter in MGR is described geometrically, it has an equivalent representation as a particle with the property of a vector boson or a pair of fermions; the geometry of spacetime and the quantum nature of matter are linked together by the unit line element covectors that belong to both the Lorentzian metric and the spin-1 Klein–Gordon wave equation. The three classic tests of GR provide a comparison of the theories in the solar system and several parts of the cosmos. MGR provides the flexibility to describe inflation after the Big Bang and galactic anisotropies.

Recursive computation of the multipole expansions of layer potential integrals over simplices for efficient fast multipole accelerated boundary elements

In boundary element methods (BEM) in R3, matrix elements and right hand sides are typically computed via analytical or numerical quadrature of the layer potential multiplied by some function over line, triangle and tetrahedral volume elements. When the problem size gets large, the resulting linear systems are often solved iteratively via Krylov subspace methods, with fast multipole methods (FMM) used to accelerate the matrix vector products needed. When FMM acceleration is used, most entries of the matrix never need be computed explicitly - they are only needed in terms of their contribution to the multipole expansion coefficients. We propose a new fast method - Quadrature to Expansion (Q2X) - for the analytical generation of the multipole expansion coefficients produced by the integral expressions for single and double layers on surface triangles; charge distributions over line segments and over tetrahedra in the volume; so that the overall method is well integrated into the FMM, with controlled error. The method is based on the O(1) per moment cost recursive computation of the moments. The method is developed for boundary element methods involving the Laplace Green's function in R3. The derived recursions are first compared against classical quadrature algorithms, and then integrated into FMM accelerated boundary element and vortex element methods. Numerical tests are presented and discussed.

Three-dimensional effects of multiple voids behind lining on the mechanical behavior of tunnel structure

Multiple voids often exist simultaneously behind the tunnel lining, which can seriously threaten the stability of a tunnel’s structure. To explore the three-dimensional effects of multiple voids behind the lining on structural mechanical behavior, we conducted a quality evaluation of the concrete lining in a railway tunnel based on model tests and numerical analyses. The effects of the void area and distribution on the structural stress, internal force, and contact pressure of the lining were explored and summarized. Results reveal the following: (1) the direction of the maximum principal stress of lining structural elements within the void region gradually changed to a longitudinal distribution along the tunnel; (2) the structural internal force between each void increased as the distance between voids decreased; (3) the structural contact pressure between each void increased significantly when the distance between voids was less than half of the void’s diameter.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF FORECASTING THE RESOURCE OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

It is established that in terms of the discrete Markov process, the problem is reduced to the search for unconditional probabilities of the system S at an arbitrary step k in state Si, that is, obtaining a transition probabilities matrix. In this formulation, the model is used for assessing the technical condition of the element; assessing the level of safety of operation of structural elements; ranking elements according to the need for repairs, reconstruction or replacement; in strategic planning of repair or reconstruction costs in conditions of limited funding and forecasting the remaining resource of elements. It is established that the theoretical basis of the study, which aims to predict the resource of hydraulic structures in operation, is the Markov theory of random processes. For a mathematical description of the process of element degradation, the most successful is the mathematical apparatus of the Markov random processes. Determination of the failure intensity parameter is the dominant feature of the Markov phenomenological model of damage accumulation to hydraulic structures' elements. The only parameter of lifecycle management is the failure rate . In the model under consideration, the parameter is determined based on the initial conditions for an individual element obtained from the survey results. Because the parameter λ is determined for an individual element and must be specified each time after the next survey, the accuracy of the model will increase. The proposed model is integral. It does not contain an explicit theoretical apparatus for a material-sensitive element, its static scheme, construction technology, environmental conditions, etc. On the other hand, all these factors and many other secondary ones are taken into account in the model at the moment the state of the element is determined using classification tables containing physical and mechanical signs of degradation. In the theory of structures, the statistical approach to formulating the transition matrix is widespread and is based on historical data from the structure operation system. It is believed that the transition matrix based on the data of the operating system is a more realistic basis for predicting the processes of structures degradation. A large number of foreign studies are devoted to the practical application of the transition matrix based on statistical data, which consider the features of transition matrices related to the bridge operation system in different countries. In this formulation, each element of the transition probability matrix P is the probability that the system in the state will move to state j in one step (i.e., in one year). At the same time, it is considered that there are no operational interventions, so the sub-diagonal elements are zero. As before, the sum of elements of the same line is 1 and the element pjj = 1 because state j is absorbing. For the implementation algorithm of the Markov chain model for forecasting the technical condition of hydraulic structures in general, the initial data are: statistical data of the distribution of structures by the state at the time of the forecast, the rating assessment of the structure is calculated by an expert according to the scale and the forecast time in years. It is established that the degradation properties of structural designs are described by two parameters: the degradation criterion and the failure rate. Any factor of the stress-strain state can be taken as a degradation criterion: reliability, internal forces, or deformations. The degradation criterion can be an arbitrary rating assessment. In our case, the reliability of the element is taken as the degradation criterion, as the most general factor of the stress-strain state.

Typology of Malay Traditional Building Construction Case Study: Bawi Malay House In Kampung Empat Balai, Kampar

Kampung Empat Balai is one of the old villages in Kuok District, Kampar Regency. The kampung comprises traditional Malay houses as cultural heritages that urge to preserve. The house has a unique roof shape and carvings pattern. However, the house is endangering due to a lack of maintenance. This research has aimed to identify the construction of houses that belong to the Bawi ethnic group people. A qualitative descriptive approach has been carried out to investigate and analyse this Malay house. This research found that the Bawi's house has a curving roof type which is known as part of the Lotiok roof type. This stilt house has a structural system in the form of a series of line elements with non-rigid joints that bind each other using notches and pegs as a connection system that is anticipated for earthquakes. Materially, this Bawi'House uses wooden-based materials throughout its construction systems, such as floors, walls, columns, girder beams and roof trusses.Malay house; traditional construction; lontiok roof; wooden-based materials