M AN is the product of his culture. This observation was a topic of discussion among Chinese philosophers for more than twenty centuries. Confucius himself never dealt with it at length. He simply remarked that nature, men are mutually near; in behaviors, they are far apart.'1 But in an argument with Mencius in the latter half of the third century B.C., Kao Tse, an environmentalist said: Man's nature is like the wood of the willow, and righteousness is like a cup or a bowl. Fashioning benevolence and righteousness out of man's nature is like making cups and bowls from the wood of the willow.2 To further elucidate his point, he said: Man's nature is like water in a whirlpool. Open a passage for it to the east, it flows eastward. Open a passage for it to the west, it flows westward.3 Half a century afterwards, Hsuntse held the view that the nature of man was bad. He supported the teachings of Confucius because he believed that a socio-political system was necessary to regulate human conduct for the maintenance of order in society. He said: crooked piece of wood can be straightened by making it conform to a straight line. A dull metal can be sharpened by constant grinding. Therefore, a man by extensive study and reflective thinking can enlighten his intellect and adjust himself to proper conduct.4 In no other country had culture exercised such long and continuous influence on its people as in China. The Chinese culture was essentially the outgrowth of the application of Confucianism shaded and colored, in order of importance, by the naturalistic philosophy of Taoism, the Hindu philosophy of Buddhism, the humanitarian philosophy of Mocianism, and the penal philosophy of Legalism. Confucianism aims at the establishment of an ideal socio-political system in which the people are taught to practice virtue by the personal example of those in authority and by the inculcation of the principles of benevolence, righteousness, and propriety. Taoism conceives of human society as the natural state in which men live together without ethical or moral standards and without social institutions. Laotse, the acknowledged founder of Taoism once said: When laws and regulations are multiplied, the world will be full of thieves and robbers.5 He also said: Abandon benevolence and righteousness, and the people will return to parental kindness and filial piety.6 He believed that only in the perfect state of nature, freed from social restraint, would the people be well-fed, well-clothed and satisfied with their modes of living . .. without interference one from the other till old age and death.7 Buddhism advocates the perfectability of the universe and the transmigration of the soul, and teaches that Nirvana, escape from earthly sufferings and from mortality, is the highest goal attainable in life.8 Mocianism is the amplification of Confucianism. Mocius, the founder of Mocianism agreed with Confucius that human relationships should be built on the principle of propriety, but contended that love and respect for one's relatives would result in quarrels among families just as loyalty and devotion to one's country would bring about wars among nations. He claimed that the only way to world peace was universal love and the brotherhood of men.9 Legalism is a concept which emphasizes, as a means of social control, the employment of reward and punishment through the instrumentalities of the law.10 With the exception of Legalism, the entire system of philosophy in China was primarily negativistic in its outlook. Such being the case, the imprints of negativism were as striking and conspicuous in the *This and the following article on China: Progenitor and Novice of Our Modern World, by N. Q. Tse, were submitted independently, but are run here as companion articles, since Mr. Cheng's paper furnishes valuable background material for Mr. Tse's discussion. -Editors. 1 Lun Yu or The Analects of Confuciuis, Book XVII, Ch. II. 2 Men1g Tse or Book of Mencius, Book VI, Ch. I. 3Ibid., Book VI, Ch. II. 4 Esun Tse or Book of Hisuntse, Ch. I. 5 Tao T'e Ching or Book of the Tao, Ch. XVII. 6 Ibid., Ch. XIX. 7 Ibid., Ch. LXXX. 8 Lin Yu-tang, The Wisdom of China and India, pp. 321-552. 9 Mo Tse or Book of Mocius, Chs. XV and XVI. 10 Wu, K. C., Ancient Chinese Political Theories, pp. 123-222.
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Jan 1, 1960
Wright Miller 
