Lignin Materials Research Articles

Effect of Surface Modification of Himalayan Nettle Fiber and Characterization of the Morphology, Physical and Mechanical Properties

Abstract The process of retting bast fiber plants for the production of long fiber has presented major challenges. Water retting, dew retting, chemical extraction, and micro-organism (fungi, enzymes) techniques were applied to the extraction of natural fibers. The two nettle samples were extracted with water retting for 14 days and dew retting for 4 weeks. This research investigated the effects on the traditional retting process of nettle fiber by fungi and bacteria formation in lignocellulosic. The latter biological extraction methods successfully degraded the lignin and pectin materials of the fiber and increases the cellulose content. These extraction methods produced high quality fiber and tensile strength at a low cost. This study determined the chemical, physical, and mechanical characteristics such as fiber cellulose, non-cellulosic content, tensile strength, tenacity, and elongation break to see how treatments affected them. The treated fiber surface morphology was characterized using scanning electron microscopy. To evaluate functional group alterations, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was used on the fiber specimen.

Room Temperature Fabrication of Macroporous Lignin Membranes for the Scalable Production of Black Silicon.

Rising global demand for biodegradable materials and green sources of energy has brought attention to lignin. Herein, we report a method for manufacturing standalone lignin membranes without additives for the first time to date. We demonstrate a scalable method for macroporous (∼100 to 200 nm pores) lignin membrane production using four different organosolv lignin materials under a humid environment (>50% relative humidity) at ambient temperatures (∼20 °C). A range of different thicknesses is reported with densely porous films observed to form if the membrane thickness is below 100 nm. The fabricated membranes were readily used as a template for Ni2+ incorporation to produce a nickel oxide membrane after UV/ozone treatment. The resultant mask was etched via an inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etch process, forming a silicon membrane and as a result yielding black silicon (BSi) with a pore depth of >1 μm after 3 min with reflectance <3% in the visible light region. We anticipate that our lignin membrane methodology can be readily applied to various processes ranging from catalysis to sensing and adapted to large-scale manufacturing.

Lignin and Keratin-Based Materials in Transient Devices and Disposables: Recent Advances Toward Materials and Environmental Sustainability.

Rising concerns and the associated negative implications of pollution from e-waste and delayed decomposition and mineralization of component materials (e.g., plastics) are significant environmental challenges. Hence, concerted pursuit of accurate and efficient control of the life cycle of materials and subsequent dematerialization in target environments has become essential in recent times. The emerging field of transient technology will play a significant role in this regard to help overcome current environmental challenges by enabling the use of novel approaches and new materials with unique functionalities to produce devices and materials such as disposable diagnostic devices, flexible solar panels, and foldable displays that are more ecologically benign, low-cost, and sustainable. The prerequisites for materials employed in transient devices and disposables include biodegradability, biocompatibility, and the inherent ability to mineralize or dissipate in target environments (e.g., body fluids) in a short lifetime with net-zero impact. Biomaterials such as lignin and keratin are well-known to be among the most promising environmentally benign, functional, sustainable, and industrially applicable resources for transient devices and disposables. Consequently, considering the current environmental concerns, this work focuses on the advances in applying lignin and keratin-based materials in short-life electronics and single-use consumables, current limitations, future research outlook toward materials, and environmental sustainability.

Chemical Transformation of Lignosulfonates to Lignosulfonamides with Improved Thermal Characteristics

Lignin is an abundantly occurring aromatic biopolymer that receives increasing attention as, e.g., a biofiller in polymer composites. Though its structure depends on the plant source, it is a valuable component showing biodegradability, antioxidant, and ultra-violet (UV) absorption properties. Lignosulfonates, a by-product of the paper and pulping industries formed as a result of the implementation of the sulfite process, have been used in the presented study as a raw material to obtain a sulfonamide derivative of lignin. Hereby, a two-step modification procedure is described. The obtained materials were investigated by means of FTIR, WAXD, SS-NMR, SEM, and TGA; the results of spectroscopic investigations confirm the formation of a sulfonamide derivative of lignin via the proposed modification method. The obtained modified lignin materials showed significantly improved thermal stability in comparison with the raw material. The internal structure of the lignosulfonate was not altered during the modification process, with only slight changes of the morphology, as confirmed by the WAXD and SEM analyses. The manufactured sulfonamide lignin derivatives show great promise in the potential application as an antibacterial filler in advanced biopolymeric composites.

Humans have intestinal bacteria that degrade the plant cell walls in herbivores

The cell walls of plants are mainly made of cellulose and contain a large number of calories. However, the main component, cellulose, is an indigestible plant fiber that is thought to be difficult for humans to use as energy. Herbivores acquire energy through the degradation of cell wall-derived dietary fiber by microorganisms in the digestive tract. Herbivores, especially horses, have a highly developed cecum and large intestine, and plants are fermented for their efficient use with the help of microorganisms. Humans also have an intestinal tract with a wide lumen on the proximal side of the large intestine, in which fermentation occurs. The digestive process of horses is similar to that of humans, and many of the intestinal bacteria found in horses that degrade plants are also found in humans. Therefore, it is thought that humans also obtain a certain amount of energy from cell wall-derived dietary fiber. However, the intake of dietary fiber by modern humans is low; thus, the amount of calories derived from indigestible plant fiber is considered to be very low. Cellulose in the plant cell wall is often accompanied by hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, suberin, and other materials. These materials are hard to degrade, and cellulose is therefore difficult for animals to utilize. If the cell wall can be degraded to some extent by cooking, it is thought that humans can obtain calories from cell wall-derived dietary fiber. If humans can use the calories from the cell wall for their diet, it may compensate for human food shortages.

A Brief Review on Electrospun Lignin Nanofibres

Application of bio-based materials in various fields is currently gaining momentum; and lignin occupies a prominent place among such materials. Integrating lignin with synthetic plastics is an innovative approach in the development of sustainable polymers. However, blending lignin with other polymers is not an easy process because of its brittleness and low dispersibility. Grafting of lignin with poly(methyl methacrylate) via atom transfer radical polymerisation enhances the miscibility of lignin with other polymers. A number of publications describe the applications of electrospun lignin nanofibres in various fields. Often discarded as an unwanted component this material has a vast potential for various applications. With the advent of electrospinning technique, lignin-based nanofibres used as an alternative to conventional lignin due to its exceptional property and thus find use in various biomedical as well as electronic applications. Antimicrobial properties of these nanofibres could be exploited effectively in the current pandemic situation. Numerous reviews have been lately published on lignin and lignin-based materials. Most of them focus on the applications of lignin, that is why the idea of the present review is to concentrate entirely on lignin-based nanofibres prepared by the electrospinning process and consolidate the applications of these electrospun lignin nanofibres

Comparing the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Polylactic Acid/Organosolv Lignin Biocomposites Made of Different Biomass for 3D Printing Applications

AbstractThis work investigates the differences in mechanical and thermal properties of polylactic acid (PLA)/lignin biocomposites made of four different unmodified organosolv lignin materials, three of which were extracted from different woody biomass (maple, oak, and pine) in-house, and one sourced commercially. Filaments made from blends of 30 wt% and 40 wt% of the in-house lignin and the commercially sourced lignin as fillers in PLA were used to 3D-print experimental test samples using fused filament fabrication (FFF) process. Statistically significant differences were observed in the mechanical properties based on tension testing and Izod impact testing, while differences in thermal properties based on differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were less significant. Test samples with 30 wt% lignin had tensile strengths that were higher than those of 40 wt% lignin. Among the three in-house extracted lignin from the woody biomass resources, maple-based composites consistently yielded the highest tensile strengths while oak-based materials yielded the highest stiffness in tension testing and the most stability in impact resistance. The pine-based materials showed the most decline in strengths between 30 wt% and 40 wt% lignin loadings. The commercially obtained lignin at 30 wt% and pine-based lignin at 40 wt% yielded much higher percent elongations at failure than all other materials. This study demonstrates the influence of lignin biomass resources and their concentrations on the properties and performances of 3D printed specimens.

Valorization of lignins from energy crops and agro-industrial byproducts as antioxidant and antibacterial materials.

Developing eco-friendly antioxidant and antimicrobial substances originating from biomass residues has recently attracted considerable interest. In this study, two lignosulfonates and various oxidized water-soluble lignins were investigated for their antioxidant properties, as assessed by ABTS, DPPH and Folin-Ciocalteu methods, and their antimicrobial activity against some bacterial strains responsible for human pathologies. The lignosulfonates showed the largest antiradical/antimicrobial capacity, whereas the other substrates were less effective. The observed antioxidant/antibacterial properties were positively correlated with lignin aromatic/phenolic content. The positive correlation between antiradical and antimicrobial activities suggests that lignin scavenging capacity was also involved in its antibacterial activity. A greater antimicrobial performance was generally observed against Gram-positive bacterial strains, and it was attributed to the intrinsic larger susceptibility of Gram-positive bacteria to lignin phenols. A significant though lesser inhibitory activity was also found against Escherichia coli. Our results confirmed the dependence of lignin antioxidant/antibacterial power on its extraction method and chemical structure, as well as on the type of bacterial strains. Identifying the relationship between lignin molecular composition and its antioxidant/antibacterial features represents an advance on the potential future use of renewable and eco-compatible lignin materials in nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Enhancement on the microbial extracellular electron transfers by modified lignin materials: Application on decolorization of azo dye

In the process of biodegradation of azo dye, redox mediators (RMs) were found to significantly enhance the removal efficiency. In this work, biodegradable RMs deriving from lignin-based monomers were prepared via peroxidation to investigate whether similar chemicals present in lignin-rich streams from biorefineries could be used for biological treatment of azo dyes. The as-prepared RMs were characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC–MS), cyclic voltammetry and electron paramagnetic resonance, and the degradation metabolites were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The induction of RMs accelerated the extracellular electron transfer, resulting efficient methyl orange (MO) decolorization. The decolorization efficiency of MO motivated by the products of vanillin peroxidation were increased from 20% to 95% in 12 h. Moreover, the products deriving from syringaldehyde peroxidation increased the efficiency from 40% to 85% in 24 h. The degradation results of the two RMs were well fitted by zero-order and first-order kinetic models. Under saline condition, the strain still remained a high and stable removal efficiency to MO in the presence of RMs, making it acceptable to be applied in the practical wastewater. The extracellular electron transfers and metabolic products were explored to unveil the mechanisms of enhancement. This study could provide a new route for the functional utilization of lignin-resource and a theoretical guidance for efficient biodegradation of azo dye wastewater.

Improving UV Curing in Organosolv Lignin-Containing Photopolymers for Stereolithography by Reduction and Acylation.

Despite recent successes in incorporating lignin into photoactive resins, lignin photo-properties can be detrimental to its application in UV-curable photopolymers, especially in specialized engineered resins for use in stereolithography printing. We report on chemical modification techniques employed to reduce UV absorption by lignin and the resulting mechanical, thermal, and cure properties of these modified lignin materials. Lignin was modified using reduction and acylation reactions and incorporated into a 3D printable resin formulation. UV–Vis absorption at the 3D printing range of 405 nm was reduced in all modified lignins compared to the unmodified sample by 25% to ≥ 60%. Resins made with the modified lignins showed an increase in stiffness and strength with lower thermal stability. Studying these techniques is an important step in developing lignin for use in UV-curing applications and further the effort to valorize lignin towards commercial use.

Preparation of nanolignin rich fraction from bamboo stem via green technology: assessment of its antioxidant, antibacterial and UV blocking properties

ABSTRACT This work reports the preparation of nano lignin-rich fraction material via green technology from the holistic use of lignocellulosic biomass bamboo. The bamboo is first chemically treated, followed by acid precipitation to extract bamboo-derived macro lignin-rich fraction material. The nano lignin-rich fraction material was then prepared via ultrasonication technique from the extracted bamboo-derived macro lignin-rich fraction material. The confirmation of the distinct lignin functional groups in the extracted lignin-rich fractions has been done by FTIR. Surface morphology by FESEM and TEM revealed spherical nano-lignin-rich fraction materials from extracted bamboo-derived macro lignin-rich fraction materials. DPPH assays indicated that both the obtained fractions depict beneficial antioxidant characteristics. They were found to be effective in terms of their antibacterial activity against both gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) and gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (E.coli), using the disc diffusion method. These fractions have UV blocking property, and nano-lignin-rich fraction material acts as a more potential UV blocking agent than others. Thus, the nano-lignin-rich fraction material has great potential as a high antioxidant, antibacterial, and UV blocking agent useful in biomedical applications. Highlights Extraction of macro-lignin rich fraction material using chemical treatment of lignocellulosic biomass bamboo via refluxing followed by acid precipitation. Preparation of nano-lignin rich fraction material from extracted bamboo-derived macro-lignin rich fraction material via ultrasonication technique as a green technology. Structural and surface morphology of the extracted macro-lignin & nano lignin-rich fraction materials have been analyzed by XRD, FTIR, EDX, SEM and TEM. The macro lignin & nano lignin-rich fraction materials showed good antioxidant, antibacterial activity and UV-blocking properties, but the nano-lignin rich fraction material exhibited more efficient properties.

The impact of differential lignin S/G ratios on mutagenicity and chicken embryonic toxicity.

Lignin and lignin-based materials have received considerable attention in various fields due to their promise as sustainable feedstocks. Guaiacol (G) and syringol (S) are two primary monolignols that occur in different ratios for different plant species. As methoxyphenols, G and S have been targeted as atmospheric pollutants and their acute toxicity examined. However, there is a rare understanding of the toxicological properties on other endpoints and mixture effects of these monolignols. To fill this knowledge gap, our study investigated the impact of different S/G ratios (0.5, 1, and 2) and three lignin depolymerization samples from poplar, pine, and miscanthus species on mutagenicity and developmental toxicity. A multitiered method consisted of in silico simulation, in vitro Ames test, and in vivo chicken embryonic assay was employed. In the Ames test, syringol showed a sign of mutagenicity, whereas guaiacol did not, which agreed with the T.E.S.T. simulation. For three S and G mixture and lignin monomers, mutagenic activity was related to the proportion of syringol. In addition, both S and G showed developmental toxicity in the chicken embryonic assay and T.E.S.T. simulation, and guaiacol had a severe effect on lipid peroxidation. A similar trend and comparable developmental toxicity levels were detected for S and G mixtures and the three lignin depolymerized monomers. This study provides data and insights on the differential toxicity of varying S/G ratios for some important building blocks for bio-based materials.

Lignin-derived hard carbon anode for potassium-ion batteries: Interplay among lignin molecular weight, material structures, and storage mechanisms

Potassium-ion batteries (PIBs) have drawn much attention as energy storage systems for large-scale grid applications due to their high energy density and low cost. As one of the most promising anode materials in PIBs, hard carbon (HC) has been prepared from various sources but exhibited varying electrochemical performance, probably due to a limited understanding of materials structure and K-ion storage mechanisms. Especially, biomass (such as lignin) represents an abundant source for synthesizing HC. However, few studies have investigated the role of lignin molecular weight (MW) in determining HC’s structure and eventually ion storage mechanism. Herein, we developed a series of HCs from lignin with different MWs at serial pyrolysis temperatures and correlated the lignin MWs and pyrolysis temperatures with HC’s structure, electrochemical performance, and K-ion storage mechanisms. The best lignin-derived HC delivered a high reversible specific capacity of ~300 mAh g−1 at 50 mA g−1. Moreover, a binary K-ion storage mechanism of “bulk insertion + surface adsorption” was fortified in lignin-derived HCs, and the contributions of each storage behavior were quantified via kinetics calculations for the first time. It was found that lignin with medium MW (9660 g mol−1) pyrolyzed at medium temperatures (700 °C) yielded HC with an optimal mixture of graphite-like nanocrystals with the largest interlayer distance and amorphous structure to maximize K-ion storage from both bulk-insertion and surface-adsorption mechanisms. This work also established a good example of building a circular economy by turning lignin recycled from wood waste into high value-added carbon products in battery technology.

Carbocation scavenger assisted acid pretreatment followed by mild alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP) treatment for efficient production of fermentable sugars and lignin adsorbents from hardwood biomass

Pretreatment is one of the key steps in lignocellulosic biorefinery. Single stage acid pretreatment is often insufficiently satisfactory to overcome biomass recalcitrance, as the presence of insoluble lignin with repolymerized structure always hinders biomass fractionation and saccharification. In this work, a sequential acid-alkali pretreatment was developed to promote biomass fractionation, saccharification and holistic utilization. Results indicated that the addition of 2-naphthol in acid pretreatment enhanced lignin reactivity towards alkali post-treatment. A synergistic effect was observed between 2-naphthol additive and alkali post-treatment in improving biomass saccharification. As a result, up to 90 % of carbohydrates in raw biomass was released and recovered as fermentable sugars after pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. Besides, enzymatic hydrolysis at cellulose loading of 8 % led to a high glucose concentration of 75.51 g/L in enzymatic hydrolysate. Moreover, lignin recovered after alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP) treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis both showed great adsorption performance for lead ions, presenting value-added lignin materials. Finally, the mass balance and energy analysis revealed an optimal fractionation of poplar biomass that could achieve an energy recovery of 86 %.

Polyurethanes Based on Unmodified and Refined Technical Lignins: Correlation between Molecular Structure and Material Properties.

The structural complexity and robust intermolecular interactions have challenged the incorporation of technical lignin into value-added polymeric materials for decades. To study the correlation between lignin molecular structure and material properties of lignin-based polyurethanes, we applied co-solvent enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation pretreatment followed by sequential precipitation to produce three distinct lignin preparations with narrowly distributed (molecular weight dispersity <2) and comparatively low molecular weight (<1500 g/mol) from poplar biomass. Structural characterization indicated that these lignin preparations differed in average molecular chain length and stiffness as well as hydroxyl group distribution. Secondary hydroxyl group providers such as aliphatic diols and polyethers were incorporated as building blocks into the lignin-based polyurethanes to provide additional hydrogen capacity to improve the dispersion of lignin in the polyurethane network. The selected aliphatic diols and polyethers interacted with lignin molecules at different levels of strength depending on their molecular structure, and their impacts were ultimately reflected in the mechanical and thermal properties of the resulting lignin-based polyurethanes. The copolymerization of technical lignin with tailored structure and secondary hydroxyl providers could provide new strategies in formulating lignin-based/containing polyurethanes for various functional applications.

Sub-micro and nano-lignin materials: Small size and rapid progress

Lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer and the main source of aromatic structures on the earth. As a by-product of cellulose in the paper pulp production, lignin has rather low added-value applications. Sub-micro and nano- lignin materials maybe open promising high added-value applications. These new fields have brought about renewed interest for lignin. In this paper, the current developments of sub-micro and nano-lignin materials were reviewed. The synthetic routes between sub-micro and nano- lignin materials were summarized. All the different shapes, microstructures, and properties of these sub-micro and nano- lignin materials were compared with that of conventional lignin. The future trend toward micro- and nanostructured lignin-based materials is also suggested. It is expected that the small size of sub-micro and nano-lignin materials displays great progress, which are promising applications of various fields in the near future.

Direct conversion of lignin to high-quality graphene-based materials via catalytic carbonization.

Methods for effectively utilizing lignin are necessary for the realization of a sustainable society. Herein, we report a method for directly converting lignin to graphene-based materials. Fe-supported lignin is prepared by dissolving lignin in an aqueous FeCl2 solution, followed by freeze drying. Graphene is then produced by catalytically carbonizing this Fe-supported lignin at 1200 °C. The characteristics of both the Fe catalyst and lignin are crucial for the production of high-quality graphene. Specifically, the lignin should disperse well in water, freeze dry, and carbonize via solid-state carbonization. The obtained graphene-based material is highly resistant to electrochemical oxidation, as observed in other graphene-based materials. The direct conversion of lignin to graphene described herein is an unprecedented method for synthesizing large amounts of graphene-based material at low cost, as well as being an excellent use for lignin.

Effect of chemical treatment of pineapple crown fiber in the production, chemical composition, crystalline structure, thermal stability and thermal degradation kinetic properties of cellulosic materials

Recently, the growing environmental concerns and economic demands have driven the need to develop effective solutions for the treatment of vegetal fibers to be used as renewable source for various industrial applications. The present study aimed to explore pineapple crown fibers (PCs) as an alternative source of cellulose. The three treatments (alcohol-insoluble residue (AIR), alkaline (AT), and organosolv) evaluated promoted chemical and morphological changes to the PCs. Fresh and treated PCs were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and chemical composition. The XRD results showed that the Cellulose-I allomorph was not altered during extraction, and that the crystallinity index of the fibers treated with AT, first bleaching step, second bleaching step, and the second bleaching step followed by KOH treatment (2B_KOH) increased to 77.8; 83.2; 83.5 and 86% when compared with fresh PC (62.3%). Results from the thermal analysis revealed that thermal stability increased for the isolated cellulose, and the maximum degradation for (2B_KOH) is 350 °C. Chemical composition results showed a decrease in the content of hemicellulose, lignin and other soluble materials after alkaline treatment, suggesting high-quality 2B_KOH with 74.6% of cellulose. SEM revealed changes in the morphological structure on fibers. Alkaline treatment followed by H2O2 bleaching is an excellent alternative for the removal of non-cellulosic material and facilitates the isolation of cellulose. These results suggested that there is a potential to isolate cellulose from PC via the sequence of treatment of a methodology by chlorite-free.

Actinomycetes – The microbial machinery for the organic-cycling, plant growth, and sustainable soil health

Soil actinomycetes are known as very versatile micro-machinery having tremendous potential to produce enzymes like cellulases, chitinases, proteases, and other agro-biochemicals, which are very instrumental in soil reclamation and sustainable soil health. The metabolic aspects of actinomycetes offer enormous possibilities for industrial and commercial applications in the food, textile, fermentation, and paper industry. They have long been known for their degrading function of complex biomass, cellulose, lignocelluloses, xylene, pectin, and other complex polysaccharides present in soils. They have been studied as saprophytes, which makes them very suitable for their decomposing actions of complex polysaccharides like lignin and cellulose materials for the production of soil organic matter and composting. They maintain biotic equilibrium by antagonistic activities against pathogens present in the soil. The present review is a repertoire of information available actinomycetes which play a significant role in the soil as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) as well as the commercial biofertilizers.

Extraction and Mix Compatibility Study of Boehmeria Fiber with Cotton

ABSTRACT Most of the textile industries widely use cotton as a raw material. This truth has elevated the demand and cost of cotton fiber throughout the world. Although they have relatively different properties to that of cotton fiber, Boehmeria fibers which are bleached and softened having competent moisture management to that of cotton can be used for the manufacturing of blend yarn. Optimum yarn quality can be manufactured by blending the promising properties of Boehmeria and cotton which reduces the limitations by compensating the limited attributes of one component with the positive attributes of the other component. Blending Cotton with Beohmeria fiber enables the production of optimum quality of yarn at a reasonable cost. This study focuses on the mix compatibility of cotton and Boehmeria fiber for the production of yarn. The Bohemia fiber used for the study was by chemical degumming. By the chemical degumming from 1500 gm decorticated Boehmeria 1370 gm of bohemia fiber extracted which 91.3% fiber yield. The color of the extracted fiber is reddish yellow due to the presence of lignin, pectin, wax, and other unwanted materials. To make the color of the extracted fiber compatible with cotton, bleaching using H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) was carried out and the converted bleached fiber into staple length by chopping. To facilitate the mixing of the Boehmeria and cotton fiber; the first manual opening was carried out and further opening using waste feeder continued to open gently and to form a homogeneous mix. The mix Component ratio of 35% Bohemeria and 65% cotton was used. The mixed fibers were opened to individual fibers on carding. Finally, 33Ne (Ne = No of 840-yards yarn weighing in One pound) yarn was manufactured at a reasonable cost on a rotor spinning machine. The yarn has a strength of 10.822 tex (tex is mass in grams per 1000 meters), elongation of 5.026%, and a breaking load of 298.9 gm which is relatively low but reasonable. The results revealed the 35/65 blending of Boehmeria/cotton fiber can produce coarse to medium count yarn at a reasonable cost. The cost incurred to extract and prepare the Beohmeria fiber for the mix is relatively lower than that of cotton cost by 11% which in turn reduced the yarn cost by the same percentage.