Lightweight Block Cipher Research Articles

A Comprehensive Review of Exploring the Dynamic Evolution of Digital Wallets and Currencies in the Face of Challenges, Innovation, and the Future Landscape from 2008 to 2023

The advent of digital payments in the last few years had not only led to the proliferation of electronic wallets or e-wallets where users deposit their funds and then use them to make secured and efficient transactions. E-wallet make it as an expectation; to give the customers the concrete, safe, and efficient way to manage digital assets like cryptocurrencies, and also tends to facilitate online transactions. In essence, this paper discusses the evolution of digital wallets in the timeframe of 2008 and present, giving spotlight to the difficulties such as security and interoperability. These factors are facilitated through technological advancements, ambiguous regulations and the change in consumer behaviors. Innovative solutions provided are the latest technologies in security and establishments of joint-ventures industries, among others. Trends forecast beyond 2021 include the merging of cryptocurrencies and decentralized finance and potential threats like quantum-resistant encryption. A digital wallet consisting of a digital block and a program called "the agent" has been designed by us. This program is responsible for conducting trading operations, sending and receiving money, as well as verifying the digital currency based on the permissions granted by the issuing bank. The wallet has been encrypted using the cyclic present lightweight block cipher algorithm. The growth of electronic wallets, also known as e-wallets, has facilitated cashless, safe, and effective transactions for small business owners and customers. The research developed a technique to pinpoint the transactional structure of the digital economy's e-wallet payment system, aiming to increase public awareness of digital currency and encourage its use in online transactions.

Improved (related-key) differential cryptanalysis on [formula omitted]

LBlock presented at ACNS 2011 is a lightweight block cipher. The length of the block and master key for LBlock is 64 and 80 bits, respectively. LBlock adopts the Feistel-SP network and has effective hardware implementation. The 18-round attack on LBlock is the most well-known single-key truncated differential attack to date. While using the MILP model in ASIACRYPT 2014, a 14-round related-key characteristic with probability 2−49 was discovered. In this paper, we investigate the (related-key) differential behavior of LBlock and implement the first 20-round differential attack against it under the single-key scenario. First, the related-key characteristics of LBlock are sought using the SAT (Boolean Satisfiability Problem) model with Matsui’s bounds constraints. Then, in order to increase the probabilities of distinguishers, a new algorithm is provided to search for characteristics with a clustering effect. Following that, the probability of a 17-round related-key differential which is the longest distinguisher is increased from 2−63 to 2−59.05. Additionally, several valid 15-round differentials found by the algorithm can be used to perform a 20-round differential attack. Finally, by expanding the 15-round distinguisher, we are able to perform the key recovery attack on 20-round LBlock. Data, time, and memory complexity are 260.98, 269.84, and 260.98, respectively. Compared to the existing single-key differential attack, our result covers two more rounds. The new algorithm can not only design block ciphers but also evaluate their security.

Efficient implementations of CRAFT cipher for Internet of Things

The rapid growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) highlights the importance of lightweight cryptography in maintaining security. However, enhancing performance while ensuring the same level of security remains a significant challenge. This paper presents two innovative architectures for the CRAFT lightweight block cipher, aiming to enhance performance without compromising security. The novel Serial and Unrolled architectures are introduced to achieve low area usage and high throughput, respectively. Specifically, the Serial architecture reduces the datapath from 64-bit to 4-bit, significantly decreasing the area. The Unrolled architecture, on the other hand, minimizes latency from 32 to 16. Additionally, Boolean satisfiability (SAT) solvers are employed to identify a lower-cost area implementation of the S-Box. The proposed designs underwent evaluation on three distinct FPGA platforms: Artix-7, Kintex-7, and Spartan-7. The results show that the low area design reduces area usage by 10.16% compared to the previous design. Additionally, the S-Box implementation achieves a significant area reduction of 28.9%. On the other hand, the unrolled design enhances the maximum throughput by 40.53% compared to the previous design. Therefore, the proposed designs could offer enhanced performance while maintaining security for IoT devices.

Differential Fault and Algebraic Equation Combined Analysis on PICO

In modern information technology, research on block cipher security is imperative. Concerning the ultra lightweight block cipher PICO, there has been only one study focused on recovering its complete master key, with a large search space of 264, and no fault analysis yet. This paper proposes a new fault analysis approach, combining differential fault and algebraic equation techniques. It achieved the recovery of PICO’s entire master key with 40 faults in an average time of 0.57 h. S-box decomposition was utilized to optimize our approach, reducing the time by a remarkable 75.83% under the identical 40-fault condition. Furthermore, PICO’s complete master key could be recovered with 28 faults in an average time of 0.78 h, indicating a significant 237 reduction in its search space compared to the previous study. This marks the first fault analysis on PICO. Compared to conventional fault analysis methods DFA (differential fault analysis) and AFA (algebraic fault analysis), our approach outperforms in recovering PICO’s entire master key, highlighting the cruciality of key expansion complexity in block cipher security. Therefore, our approach could serve to recover master keys of block ciphers with comparably complicated key expansions, and production of more secure block ciphers could result.

MILP-based differential cryptanalysis on full-round shadow

Shadow (Guo et al., 2021) is a lightweight block cipher based on a new logical combination method of AND-RX operation and the generalized Feistel structure with high diffusion and excellent performance in hardware implementation. In this paper, the components and structure of Shadow cipher are researched, and based on MILP automatic search algorithms for differential trails the 2-round iterative differential characteristics are obtained, then the full-round differential characteristics of both Shadow-32 and Shadow-64 are given. Moreover, targeting Shadow-32, we conduct 32-bit round-key recovery attack by using four 13.5-round differential trails, and the experimental verification shows that the time complexity is 226.02 and space complexity is 214.1. Recovering the 64 master key bits need to solve a system of multivariate equations over F2 with the time complexity more than 250.69. For Shadow-64, the process of recovering the master key is similar. Finally, we analyze the reasons for the insecurity of the Shadow cipher that may help to improve the cryptographic performance of the Shadow or provide help for a new block cipher design.

RAZOR A Lightweight Block Cipher for Security in IoT

Rapid technological developments prompted a need to do everything from anywhere and that is growing due to modern lifestyle. The Internet of Things (IoT) technology is helping to provide the solutions by inter-connecting the smart devices. Lightweight block ciphers are deployed to enable the security in such devices. In this paper, a new lightweight block cipher RAZOR is proposed that is based on a hybrid design technique. The round function of RAZOR is designed by mixing the Feistel and substitution permutation network techniques. The rotation and XOR based diffusion function is applied on 32-bit input with 8 branches and branch number 7 to optimize the security. The strength of RAZOR is proved against differential, linear, and impossible differential attacks. The number of active S-boxes in any 5-round differential characteristic of RAZOR is 21 in comparison to the 10, 6, 4, 7, and 6 for PRESENT, Rectangle, LBlock, GIFT, and SCENERY respectively. RAZOR provides better security than the existing lightweight designs. The average throughput of 1.47 mega bytes per second to encrypt the large files makes it a better choice for software oriented IoT applications.

Automatic Search of Differential Characteristics and Improved Differential Cryptanalysis for PRINCE, QARMA, and MANTIS

Reflection structure has a significant advantage that realizing decryption and encryption results in minimum additional costs, and many block ciphers tend to adopt such structure to achieve the requirement of low overhead. PRINCE, MANTIS, QARMA, and PRINCEv2 are lightweight block ciphers with reflection feature proposed in recent years. In this paper, we consider the automatic differential cryptanalysis of reflection block ciphers based on Boolean satisfiability (SAT) method. Since reflection block ciphers have different round functions, we extend forward and backward from the middle structure and achieve to accelerate the search of the optimal differential characteristics for such block ciphers with the Matsui’s bounding conditions. As a result, we present the optimal differential characteristics for PRINCE up to 12 rounds (full round), and they are also the optimal characteristics for PRINCEv2. We also find the optimal differential characteristics for MANTIS, QARMA‐64, and QARMA‐128 up to 10, 12, and 8 rounds, respectively. To mount an efficient differential attack on such block ciphers, we present a uniform SAT model by combining the differential characteristic searching process and the key recovery process. With this model, we find two sets of 7‐round differential characteristics for PRINCE with less guessed key bits and use them to present a multiple differential attack against 11‐round PRINCE, which improves the known single‐key attack on PRINCE by one round to our knowledge.

DRcipher: A pseudo-random dynamic round lightweight block cipher

The Internet of Things (IoT) has gained popularity in various fields, including components such as embedded devices and wireless sensors. However, ensuring the security of data transmission from these devices is of critical importance. In light of these challenges, a novel lightweight encryption method called DRcipher is proposed in this paper for resource-constrained IoT devices. DRcipher has a 64-bit block size and supports either 96-bit or 128-bit key sizes. In order to improve the security, DRcipher employs a pseudo-random number of encryption rounds determined by the primary key. DRcipher adopts the structure of Generalized Feistel Network (GFN) with 4 branches, and its round functions consist of F-function, FF-function and RP permutation components. In particular, there is a negative feedback mechanism between the FF-function and the overall round of encryption functions. In addition, DRcipher is synthesised using Synopsys Design Compiler version A-2007.12-SP1 and the UMCL18G212T3 standard cell library. DRcipher-96 has an area footprint of 1546 Gate Equivalents (GE), while DRcipher-128 has a slightly larger area footprint of 1646 GE. Moreover, a comprehensive security analysis shows that the proposed DRcipher ensures high-level security redundancy against differential cryptanalysis, linear cryptanalysis, and so on.

Secure Data Sharing Scheme for Multi-Node Devices

For the problem that the communication between maritime devices may be listened to by the adversary, resulting in the data shared between maritime devices may also be tampered with and forged by the adversary, thus jeopardizing the maritime IoT, this paper firstly starts from the wireless sensor network technology which is the most widely used in the maritime IoT, and then selects and designs a lightweight block cipher algorithm for realizing the secure data sharing of the multi-node devices in the maritime IoT. After analyzing the security of the algorithm, it is concluded that this paper's scheme performs well in terms of anti-differential analysis and linear analysis, and is better than PRESENT algorithm in terms of hardware implementation.

Bit‐Based Evaluation of Lightweight Block Ciphers SLIM, LBC‐IoT, and SLA by Mixed Integer Linear Programming

Bit‐Based Evaluation of Lightweight Block Ciphers SLIM, LBC‐IoT, and SLA by Mixed Integer Linear Programming

Key-based dynamic S-Box approach for PRESENT lightweight block cipher

Key-based dynamic S-Box approach for PRESENT lightweight block cipher

Full-round impossible differential attack on shadow block cipher

Lightweight block ciphers are the essential encryption algorithm for devices with limited resources. Its goal is to ensure the security of data transmission through resource-constrained devices. Impossible differential cryptanalysis is one of the most effective cryptanalysis on block ciphers, and assessing the ability of resisting this attack is a basic design criterion. Shadow is a lightweight block cipher proposed by Guo et al. (IEEE Internet Things J 8(16):13014–13023, 2021). It utilizes a combination of ARX operations and generalized Feistel structure to overcome the weakness of the traditional Feistel structure that only diffuses half in one round. In this paper, we focus on the differential property of Shadow and its security against impossible differential cryptanalysis. First, we use the SAT method to automatically search for a full-round impossible differential distinguisher of Shadow-32. Then, based on the experimental results, we prove that Shadow has a differential property with probability 1 based on the propagation of the state. Further, we can obtain an impossible differential distinguisher for an arbitrary number of rounds of Shadow. Finally, we perform a full key recovery attack on the full-round Shadow-32 and Shadow-64. Both experimentally and theoretically, our results indicate that Shadow is critically flawed, and regardless of the security strength of the internal components and the number of rounds applied, the overall cipher remains vulnerable to impossible differential cryptanalysis.

Low area and high throughput hardware implementations for the LILLIPUT cipher

SummaryThe widespread use of Internet of Things devices has increased the demand for lower cost and more efficient lightweight ciphers. However, there is a difficult trade‐off between cost and efficiency for lightweight block ciphers. The optimizations of area and throughput are important for some constrained environments. This paper proposes two novel hardware architectures for the LILLIPUT cipher. In the novel low area structure, a new permutation layer is provided for LILLIPUT. The relationship between encryption algorithm and key scheduling algorithm is utilized to achieve optimal sharing among components, which significantly reduces hardware area. The experimental results show that the number of XOR gates and S‐boxes required for low area optimization is reduced by 52 and 8, respectively. The total area is reduced by about 18%. For high throughput structure, this paper provides 2‐round, 5‐round, and 15‐round loop unrolling designs for LILLIPUT to improve throughput. The experimental results show that the throughput of the 5‐round loop unrolling structure reaches a good level, which is relatively the most cost‐effective. In practical application, ciphers can be unrolled implementations according to the needs of devices to improve the execution speed, which can greatly reduce the execution time and complexity of the algorithm.

ALICA: A Multi-S-Box Lightweight Cryptographic Algorithm Based on Generalized Feistel Structure

With the development of science and technology, IoT devices have already become ubiquitous in the public eye. Through the perception layer, the collected data are displayed or transmitted to the server backend for analysis. Due to the increasing integration of IoT devices into people’s daily lives, privacy issues, such as data leaks, have received more attention. Most sensor nodes, such as temperature and pressure sensors in marine environments, have low computing power, storage capacity, and significant underlying heterogeneity, making it challenging to implement a standardized data security protection solution. Data security in the nodes is seriously challenged as a result. It is of great significance to design a lightweight block cipher for the Internet of Things (IoT) environment, which can ensure the security of node information. A new lightweight block cipher algorithm called ALICA is proposed in this paper, which is well-suited for the low computing power and heterogeneous device environment at the lower layers. A generalized Feistel structure and a linear structure with XOR and shift operations are used to achieve ease of software implementation. Two different S-boxes are used to create the nonlinear structure of the password, thereby enhancing the robust security of the cipher. In addition, the cipher adopts a design approach that prioritizes software efficiency while also considering hardware implementation efficiency. This makes it more suitable for low computing power, storage capacity, and resource-limited IoT sensor nodes at the lower layers.

LELBC: A low energy lightweight block cipher for smart agriculture

The massive collection and transmission of various crop and livestock data in smart agriculture leads to serious security concerns. Furthermore, many Internet of Things (IoT) devices in smart agriculture are battery-powered, with limited energy resources. Therefore, a low energy lightweight block cipher (LELBC) is proposed to overcome the data leakage problem during sensor data transmission in smart agriculture. Firstly, a new permutation substitution permutation (PSP) structure is proposed, taking into account the energy resource constraints of unified encryption and decryption (ED) circuits. It has highly consistent encryption and decryption and a good diffusion effect. Secondly, a 4-bit low energy involutive S-box is obtained based on a genetic algorithm. The proposed S-box has lower area and latency compared to the existing S-boxes. The experimental data show that LELBC consumes 1864 gate equivalents (GE) in area and 6.99 μJ/bit in energy (encryption + decryption) under the UMC 0.18μm 1P6M process library. LELBC decreases energy and area consumption by 24.02% and 24.04%, respectively, compared to Midori. Finally, a temperature collection and encryption transmission platform is established. LELBC is deployed on the platform to encrypt the collected data, establishing the first line of defense for the secure transmission of smart agriculture sensor data.

Statistical analysis of the key scheduling of the new lightweight block cipher

This research paper is aimed at studying the generation of round keys (GRK) of the lightweight block cipher (LBC), which provides an optimal balance between security, performance, and minimal costs in internet of things (IoT). For comparative analysis, the GRK of the well-known PRESENT algorithm was studied. A number of studies have been carried out to assess the cryptographic strength of encryption algorithms, however, less attention has been paid to the assessment of the reliability of GRK algorithms, which can lead to a possible weakening of a cryptosystem. A trusted GRK should issue random and independent round keys regardless of the secret key. The experiments were carried out with secret keys of low and high density, as well as random numbers. The obtained results show that the GRK of the LBC algorithm generates random round keys that successfully pass tests of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for randomness.

A NEW PROPOSED LIGHTWEIGHT CIPHER

Modern cryptography algorithm development has favored hardware optimization in computer systems. This is especially important for fitting cryptographic protocols onto devices with limited computing capacity, volume, and power consumption. Lightweight cryptography is an intellectual pursuit that develops cryptographic methods for economically frugal systems. This study introduces a revolutionary lightweight block cipher based on bio features for adequate cryptographic data security. A carefully planned sequence of analytical paradigms, the core of which involves complex computations to evaluate the proposed cryptographic approach, supports this innovation's theoretical foundations. As detailed in the research, these extensive assessments demonstrate the technology's strong security. The essay examines frequency analysis, frequency within block analysis, and the run test to provide a more complete review. These analytical tools provide sophisticated information regarding the algorithm's resilience to specific cryptographic vulnerabilities. Frequency analysis measures value distribution in the cipher, revealing possible susceptibilities. Frequency within block analysis shows complex value patterns inside discrete blocks, indicating the algorithm's behavior under certain situations. The run test is essential for determining the algorithm's avalanche impact. A careful evaluation of sequential value distribution tests the algorithm's innate sensitivity to input changes, a prerequisite for cryptographic security. This paper carefully examines cryptography algorithmic assessment following academic abstract principles. It includes core security assessments, frequency, frequency within the block, and run tests. The proposed lightweight block cipher's evaluative rigor supports its merit and cogency, making it a significant contribution to the evolving landscape of cryptographic algorithms for resource-constrained computational ecosystems.

Differential, Linear, and Meet-in-the-Middle Attacks on the Lightweight Block Cipher RBFK

Differential, Linear, and Meet-in-the-Middle Attacks on the Lightweight Block Cipher RBFK

Cryptanalysis of full-round SFN Block Cipher a Lightweight Block Cipher, Targeting IoT Systems

Cryptanalysis of full-round SFN Block Cipher a Lightweight Block Cipher, Targeting IoT Systems

Improved differential fault attack against SIMECK based on two-bit fault model

Low-end embedded systems gain specific advantages from using lightweight block ciphers, such as the SIMECK cipher, first introduced in 2015. However, the public nature of SIMECK has led to risks of potential fault attacks. Our study scrutinizes the differential fault attack (DFA) on SIMECK. It considers the different models of byte fault, in which the ability to obtain the fault location and the cracking efficiency of the round key are studied. Both theoretical and experimental testing demonstrate the ability to discover SIMECK's master key by inducing byte faults at LT−5, with a hamming weight of two and a bit distance of five, denoted as a two-bit fault. In the cases of SIMECK 48/96 and 64/128, an attacker can pinpoint the master key with 35.15 and 33.18 faults, respectively. Our method diverges from previous methodologies by introducing the fault in an earlier round and only one round, decreasing the number of faulty ciphertexts needed. Thus, this model is more practice.