Ligand-protected Gold Clusters Research Articles

A first glance into mixed phosphine-stibine moieties as protecting ligands for gold clusters.

Atomically precise gold clusters have attracted considerable research interest as their tunable structure-property relationships have resulted in widespread applications, from sensing and biomedicine to energetic materials and catalysis. In this article, the synthesis and optical properties of a novel [Au6(SbP3)2][PF6]2 cluster are reported. Despite the lack of spherical symmetry in the core, the cluster shows exceptional thermal and chemical stability. Detailed structural attributes and optical properties are evaluated experimentally and theoretically. This, to the best of our knowledge, is the first report of a gold cluster protected via synergistic multidentate coordination of stibine (Sb) and phosphine moieties (P). To further show that the latter moieties give a set of unique properties that differs from monodentate phosphine-protected [Au6(PPh3)6]2+, geometric structure, electronic structure, and optical properties are analyzed theoretically. In addition, this report also demonstrates the critical role of overall-ligand architecture in stabilizing mixed ligand-protected gold clusters.

Superatomic Three-Center Bond in a Tri-Icosahedral Au36Ag2(SR)18 Cluster: Analogue of 3c-2e Bond in Molecules.

Probing the nature of electronic stability for ligand-protected gold clusters is important in gold chemistry. A thermally stable Au36Ag2(SR)18 nanocluster was synthesized recently. It has a D3h tri-icosahedral [Au30Ag2]12+ core with 20 valence electrons, which does not follow the magic number of gold superatoms. Herein, we propose a superatomic three-center bond to unveil its electronic stability. The [Au30Ag2]12+ core is viewed as a union of three face-fused superatoms, and chemical bonding analysis suggests a three-superatom-center two-electron (3sc-2e) bond for the octet rule of each superatom, which mimics the bonding framework of the D3h O32- molecule. Moreover, a liganded tri-icosahedral [Au27Pt3Ag2]11+ core with 18 valence electrons is predicted, and three 2sc-2e bonds are formed between each of two superatoms to satisfy the octet rule (analogue of D3h O3), indicating the flexibility of superatomic bonding. Such a superatomic three-center bond extends the community of superatomic bonding and gives a new perspective for superatom assembling.

Effect of Ligand Structures on Ligand-Protected Gold Clusters: [Au-(p-/m-/o-MBT)]1-8 Clusters.

The controllable preparation of ligand-protected clusters is still an unresolved problem, which may be due to that their formation mechanism is unclear. We propose that the ligand is the key to solve the above problems. Here, by using p-, m-, and o-methylbenzenethiol ligand protected gold clusters as examples, we try to explore the effect of ligand structures on ligand-protected gold clusters. The geometrical structures, relative stabilities and surface properties of small-sized ligand-protected gold clusters [Au-SR]1-8 (SR = p-/m-/o-MBT) have been systematically studied based on the density functional theory. The results show that the ground state structures of [Au-SR]1-8 clusters tend to form closed rings except for [Au-SR]1,2. The different structures of ligand have significant effect on the structures and stabilities of ligand-protected clusters. By analyzing their surface properties and possible growth patterns, it is found that [Au-SR]1,2 clusters serve as the basic building blocks, and the larger clusters can be regarded as the combinations of them. This study provides some insights into the effect of ligands on ligand-protected clusters, which is useful for understanding the formation mechanism of ligand-protected clusters.

Ligand-Induced Cuboctahedral versus Icosahedral Core Isomerism within Eight-Electron Heterocyclic-Carbene-Protected Gold Nanoclusters

The controlled structural modification of ligand-protected gold clusters is evaluated by a proper variation of the size and shape of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands. Density functional theory calculations show that the Au13 core of [Au13(NHC)8Br4]+ can be shaped into an icosahedron and/or a so far unexpected cuboctahedron depending on the sterical effect inferred by the NHC ligand side arms. As a result, the cluster properties can be modified, encouraging further exploration on controlled core isomerization in ligated gold cluster chemistry.

A Review of State of the Art in Phosphine Ligated Gold Clusters and Application in Catalysis.

Atomically precise gold clusters are highly desirable due to their well‐defined structure which allows the study of structure–property relationships. In addition, they have potential in technological applications such as nanoscale catalysis. The structural, chemical, electronic, and optical properties of ligated gold clusters are strongly defined by the metal–ligand interaction and type of ligands. This critical feature renders gold–phosphine clusters unique and distinct from other ligand‐protected gold clusters. The use of multidentate phosphines enables preparation of varying core sizes and exotic structures beyond regular polyhedrons. Weak gold–phosphorous (Au–P) bonding is advantageous for ligand exchange and removal for specific applications, such as catalysis, without agglomeration. The aim of this review is to provide a unified view of gold–phosphine clusters and to present an in‐depth discussion on recent advances and key developments for these clusters. This review features the unique chemistry, structural, electronic, and optical properties of gold–phosphine clusters. Advanced characterization techniques, including synchrotron‐based spectroscopy, have unraveled substantial effects of Au–P interaction on the composition‐, structure‐, and size‐dependent properties. State‐of‐the‐art theoretical calculations that reveal insights into experimental findings are also discussed. Finally, a discussion of the application of gold–phosphine clusters in catalysis is presented.

Tri- and Tetra-superatomic Molecules in Ligand-Protected Face-Fused Icosahedral (M@Au12)n (M = Au, Pt, Ir, and Os, and n = 3 and 4) Clusters.

Cluster assembling has been one of the hottest topics in nanochemistry. In certain ligand-protected gold clusters, bi-icosahedral cores assembled from Au13 superatoms were found to be analogues of diatomic molecules F2, N2, and singlet O2, respectively, in electronic shells, depending upon the super valence bond (SVB) model. However, challenges still remain for extending the scale in cluster assembling via the SVB model. In this work, ligand-protected tri- and tetra-superatomic clusters composed of icosahedral M@Au12 (M = Au, Pt, Ir, and Os) units are theoretically predicted. These clusters are stable with reasonable highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)-lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy gaps and proven to be analogues of simple triatomic (Cl3-, OCl2, O3, and CO2) and tetra-atomic (N≡C-C≡N, and Cl-C≡C-Cl) molecules in both geometric and electronic structures. Moreover, a stable cluster-assembling gold nanowire is predicted following the same rules. This work provides effective electronic rules for cluster assembling on a larger scale and gives references for their experimental synthesis.

Targeted Synthesis of Ligand-Protected Gold Clusters and Exploration of Their Design Principles

Targeted Synthesis of Ligand-Protected Gold Clusters and Exploration of Their Design Principles

Effect of Ligand on the Electronic State of Gold in Ligand-Protected Gold Clusters Elucidated by X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy

Gold (Au) clusters with well-defined geometrical structures have attracted substantial attention due to their unique optical and catalytic properties, which are drastically changed by the ligands, ...

Terahertz Raman Spectroscopy of Ligand-Protected Au8 Clusters.

For ligand-protected gold clusters, geometrical differences of gold cores and/or the presence of secondary gold core-ligand interactions influence their unique optical and electronic properties and can, in principle, be detected by spectral changes of gold core vibrations (phonon modes) in ultralow-frequency Raman spectroscopy. We report experimental and theoretical Raman spectra of Au8 clusters protected by phosphine ligands particularly in the "gold cluster fingerprint" region from 50 to 150 cm-1 Raman shift (1.5 to 4.5 terahertz, THz). A characteristic core breathing mode observed at ca. 123 cm-1 was sensitive to differences of core geometries. A new band was found at ca. 150 cm-1, originating from a local strain on a polyhedral gold core caused by weak Au···π interactions. THz Raman spectroscopy can be utilized for metal nanoclusters to visualize core structural changes and Au···π interactions, which cannot be captured by single crystal X-ray analysis.

Chiral footprint of the ligand layer in the all-alkynyl-protected gold nanocluster Au144(CCPhF)60.

The electronic structure and chiroptical properties of the recently isolated and structurally characterized all-alkynyl-protected gold nanocluster Au144(CCPhF)60 were analyzed via density functional theory (DFT) computations and compared to those of the structurally similar all-thiolate-protected Au144(SCH2Ph)60. While DFT predicts very strong CD signals of similar strength for both clusters, the origins of chiroptical activity are markedly different. The chiral response of Au144(CCPhF)60 originates only from the footprint of the outermost gold-ligand layer of 30 FPhCC-Au-CCPhF units covering an achiral Ih-symmetric Au114 core whereas the Au114 core of the Au144(SCH2Ph)60 cluster has a chiral I symmetry and it alone produces CD signals that are comparable to those of the well-studied chiral Au38(SR)24. These signals are then amplified by a chiral arrangement of the protecting 30 PhH2CS-Au-SCH2Ph units. These results shed light on the origins of chiroptical activity of ligand-protected gold clusters that form an important class of atom-precise nanomaterials with potential applications in chiral sensing and enantioselective catalysis.

Nuclear and Electron Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopies of Atomically Precise Gold Nanoclusters

Atomically precise gold nanoclusters display properties that are unseen in larger nanoparticles. When the number of gold atoms is sufficiently small, the clusters exhibit molecular properties. Their study requires extensive use of classic molecular physical chemistry and, thus, methods such as vibrational spectroscopies, electrochemistry, density functional theory and molecular dynamics calculations, and of course nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopies. NMR and EPR studies have been mostly carried out on the benchmark, stable molecules Au25(SR)18, Au38(SR)24, Au102(SR)44, and Au144(SR)60 (where SR = thiolate). In this Account, we showcase examples primarily taken from our previous and ongoing NMR and EPR studies, which we hope will trigger further interest in the use of these sensitive, though often underutilized, techniques. Indeed, 1D and 2D NMR spectra of pure, atomically precise clusters can be very detailed and informative. Molecular clusters are molecules and, thus, have discrete energy levels and undergo stepwise oxidation or reduction. The effect of the charge state on the chemical shifts and line shapes is a function of the ligand type (ligands differ due to specific bonds with different Au atom types) and the position of the chemical group along the ligand backbone: for groups near the Au core, they can be very dramatic. Ligand-protected gold clusters are hard-soft molecules where a hard metal core is surrounded by a dynamic molecular layer. The latter provides a nanoenvironment that interfaces the cluster core with the surrounding environment and can be permeated by molecules and ions. NMR spectroscopy is especially useful to assess its structure. For example, the data show that whereas long alkanethiolates form bundles, shorter chains exhibit more conformational freedom and are quite folded. NMR spectroscopy allows studying diastereotopic effects and provides information on possible hydrogen bonds of ligands with sulfur or surface gold atoms. EPR spectroscopy is a very precise technique to check and characterize the magnetic state of gold clusters or clusters doped with foreign-metal atoms. Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) provides a powerful tool to assess the interaction of an unpaired electron with nuclei, as we showed for 197Au and 1H. It can be used as a sensitive probe of the spin-density distribution in nanoclusters: for example, it showed that the singly occupied molecular orbital may span outside the Au core by nearly 6 Å. Solid-state EPR spectroscopy has provided compelling evidence that the specific ligands and the crystallinity degree are very important factors in determining the interactions between clusters in the solid state. Depending on the condition, paramagnetic, superparamagnetic, ferromagnetic, or antiferromagnetic behavior can be observed. Time-resolved EPR was successfully tested to determine the efficiency of singlet-oxygen generation via sensitization of Au25 clusters. This Account thus demonstrates some of the remarkable insights that can be gained into the properties of atomically precise clusters through detailed NMR and EPR studies.

Synthesis and characterization of size-controlled atomically precise gold clusters

AbstractIn this article, synthetic strategies and characterization methodologies of atomically precise gold clusters have been summarized. The typical and effective synthetic strategies including a systematic “size-focusing” methodology has been developed for attaining atomically precise gold clusters with size control. Another universal synthetic methodology is ligand exchange-induced size/structure transformation (LEIST) based on from one stable size to another. These two methodologies have largely expanded the “universe” of atomically precise gold clusters. Elite of typical synthetic case studies of ligand protected gold clusters are presented. Important characterization techniques of these atomically precise gold clusters also are included. The identification and characterization of gold clusters have been achieved in terms of nuclearity (size), molecular formulation, and geometrical structures by the combination of these techniques. The determination of gold cluster structure based on single crystals is of paramount importance in understanding the relationship of structure–property. The criterion and selection of these typical gold clusters are all “strictly” atomically precise that all have been determined ubiquitously by single crystal diffraction. These related crystallographic data are retrieved from Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC) up to 30th November 2017. Meanwhile, the cutting edge and other important characterization methodologies including electron diffraction (ED), extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXFAS), and synchrotron sources are briefly reviewed. The new techniques hold the promise of pushing the limits of crystallization of gold clusters. This article is not just an exhaustive and up to date review, generally summarized synthetic strategies, but also a practical guide regarding gold cluster synthesis. We called it a “Cookbook” of ligand protected gold clusters, including synthetic recipes and characterization details.Graphical Abstract:

Structural evolution and properties of small-size thiol-protected gold nanoclusters

ABSTRACTLigand-protected gold clusters are widely used in biosensors and catalysis. Understanding the structural evolution of these kinds of nanoclusters is important for experimental synthesis. Herein, based on the particle swarm optimisation algorithm and density functional theory method, we use [Au1(SH)2]n, [Au2(SH)3]n, [Au3(SH)4]n (n = 1–3) as basic units to research the structural evolution relationships from building blocks to the final whole structures. Results show that there is a ‘line-ring-core’ structural evolution pattern in the growth process of the nanoclusters. The core structures of the ligand-protected gold clusters consist of Au3, Au4, Au6 and Au7 atoms. The electronics and optics analysis reflects that stability and optical properties gradually enhance with increase in size. These results can be used to understand the initial growth stage and design new ligand-protected nanoclusters.

Stabilizing ultrasmall Au clusters for enhanced photoredox catalysis

Recently, loading ligand-protected gold (Au) clusters as visible light photosensitizers onto various supports for photoredox catalysis has attracted considerable attention. However, the efficient control of long-term photostability of Au clusters on the metal-support interface remains challenging. Herein, we report a simple and efficient method for enhancing the photostability of glutathione-protected Au clusters (Au GSH clusters) loaded on the surface of SiO2 sphere by utilizing multifunctional branched poly-ethylenimine (BPEI) as a surface charge modifying, reducing and stabilizing agent. The sequential coating of thickness controlled TiO2 shells can further significantly improve the photocatalytic efficiency, while such structurally designed core-shell SiO2-Au GSH clusters-BPEI@TiO2 composites maintain high photostability during longtime light illumination conditions. This joint strategy via interfacial modification and composition engineering provides a facile guideline for stabilizing ultrasmall Au clusters and rational design of Au clusters-based composites with improved activity toward targeting applications in photoredox catalysis.

Exploring the structure evolution and core/ligand structure patterns of a series of large sized thiolate-protected gold clusters Au145-3N(SR)60-2N (N = 1-8): a first principles study.

The atomic structures of many atomically precise nanosized ligand protected gold clusters have been resolved recently. However, the determination of the atomic structures of large sized ligand protected gold clusters containing metal atoms over ∼100 is still a grand challenge. The lack of structural information of these larger sized clusters has greatly hindered the understanding of the structure evolution and structure-property relations of ligand protected gold nanoclusters. In this work, we theoretically studied the structure evolution of a series of large sized Au145-3N(SR)60-2N (N = 1-8) clusters based on an "[Au2@Au(SR)2] fragmentation" pathway starting from a model Au145(SR)60 cluster. Through comprehensively searching the atomic structure of various clusters and evaluating their stabilities by means of first principles calculations, the stabilization mechanism of experimentally reported Au130(SR)50 and Au133(SR)52 clusters is first rationalized. Our studies indicated that Au130(SR)50 and Au133(SR)52 are two critical sized clusters on which the gold cores underwent configuration transitions between decahedral and icosahedral cores. The energy comparisons of various cluster isomer structures indicated that the Au130(SR)50, Au127(SR)48, Au124(SR)46 and Au121(SR)44 clusters favored a decahedral core, while the Au133(SR)52, Au136(SR)54, Au139(SR)56, and Au142(SR)58 clusters preferred icosahedral gold cores. Furthermore, we also find that the cuboctahedral gold core is less stable in the cluster size region between ∼120 and ∼140 gold atoms. The optical absorption properties and relative thermodynamic stabilities of the Au145-3N(SR)60-2N (N = 1-8) clusters are also surveyed by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations.

Optical Properties of Small Gold Clusters Au8L82+ (L = PH3, PPh3): Magnetic Circular Dichroism Spectra

A theoretical study of the optical and electronic properties of small phosphine-protected centered gold clusters with gold core symmetry C3v was performed using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) methods. It is well-known that magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectroscopy yields more detailed information about electronic structure and optical properties with respect to optical absorption spectroscopy. In this work, we combine electronic absorption and MCD spectroscopy for gold nanoclusters to gain a better understanding of their electronic states. These results can be used to help with interpretation of the experimentally measured MCD spectra, which is a very complicated process, especially for low-symmetry systems. In the present paper, absorption and MCD spectra were calculated for ligand-protected gold clusters Au8(PPh3)82+ and Au8(PH3)82+, in addition to bare Au82+. The influence of the nature of the ligands on the optical properties of gold cluster w...

Porphyrin Derivative-Protected Gold Cluster with a Pseudotetrahedral Shape

The shape of a nanomaterial plays an important role in controlling the packing arrangement and properties of the assembly that it forms. In the case of metal clusters, the shape of the metal core is veiled by a flexible organic ligand with a comparable size to that of the metal core. Here, we controlled the overall shape of ligand-protected gold clusters (AuCs) using a rigid, planar molecule as a ligand by following a simple geometrical relationship between an inscribed sphere and a circumscribed polyhedron. For the rigid, planar molecule, we synthesized a new porphyrin derivative that could strongly attach to the AuCs in a face-coordination fashion. As a result, 1.0 ± 0.2 nm porphyrin derivative-protected AuCs with a pseudotetrahedral shape were successfully synthesized. The present results pave the way to a new concept for controlling the pseudosymmetry of ligand-protected metal clusters.

Correlating the Structure and Optical Absorption Properties of Au76(SR)44 Cluster

The atomic structure of recently synthesized thiolate-protected Au76 cluster is theoretically predicted via a simple structural rule summarized from the crystal structures of thiolate-protected Au44(SR)28, Au36(SR)24, and Au52(SR)32 clusters. We find that Au76(SR)44 (N = 7) and recently reported Au52(SR)32 (N = 4), Au44(SR)28 (N = 3), Au36(SR)24 (N = 2), and Au28(SR)20 (N = 1) belong to a family of homologous Au20+8N(SR)16+4N clusters whose Au cores follow a one-dimensional polytetrahedral growth pathway. The Au76(SR)44 cluster is predicted to contain an anisotropic face-centered-cubic (fcc) Au core, which can be viewed as combination of two helical tetrahedra Au4 chains and is remarkably different from the well-known spherical Au core in ligand-protected gold clusters in the size region of 1–2 nm. The intense near-infrared (NIR) absorption of Au76(SR)44 is attributed to the synergistic effect of anisotropic Au core structure and ligand protections. A plausible cluster-to-cluster transformation mechanism ...

Phosphine passivated gold clusters: how charge transfer affects electronic structure and stability

A systematic evaluation of small phosphine ligand-protected gold clusters with six to nine gold atoms using density functional theory with dispersion correction has been performed in order to understand the major factors determining stability, including its size, shape, and charge dependence. We show that the charge per atom of the cluster is much more important for the interaction between the ligand shell and gold cluster than the system size. Thus, strong charge transfer effects determine the binding strength between the ligand shell and cluster. The clusters in this series are all non-spherical and exhibit large HOMO-LUMO gaps (above 2.7 eV). Analysis of the delocalized nature of the electronic states at the centre of the clusters demonstrates the presence of nascent superatomic states. However the number of delocalized electrons in these systems is significantly influenced by the charge transfer from the phosphine ligands, contrary to the usual accounting rule for superatom complex systems. Thus, not only electron withdrawing but also charge transfer effects should be considered to influence the superatomic structure of charged ligand surrounded clusters. In consequence in the phosphine gold cluster series under consideration the systems Au7(PPh3)7+ and Au8(PPh3)82+ exhibit nearly fully filled S and P states and the HOMO-LUMO gap increases by 0.2 eV and 0.9 eV, respectively. The interpretation for the stability of the gold phosphine systems is in agreement with experimental results and demonstrates the importance of the superatomic concept.

Symmetry breaking in ligand-protected gold clusters probed by nonlinear optics

The first hyperpolarizabilities of [Au25(SR)18](-1/0) and Au38(SR)24 clusters were determined by Hyper-Rayleigh Scattering. A strong dependence on the molecular symmetry was observed, and we explore two strategies to destroy the center of inversion in [Au25(SR)18](-1/0), protection by chiral ligands and alloying of the cluster with silver. This may open new avenues to applications of Au : SR clusters in second-order nonlinear optics.