Packet Lifetime Research Articles

Avoiding Detection by Hostile Nodes in Airborne Tactical Networks

Contemporary airborne radio networks are usually implemented using omnidirectional antennas. Unfortunately, such networks suffer from disadvantages such as easy detection by hostile aircraft and potential information leakage. In this paper, we present a novel mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocol based on directional antennas and situation awareness data that utilizes adaptive multihop routing to avoid sending information in directions where hostile nodes are present. Our protocol is implemented in the OMNEST simulator and evaluated using two realistic flight scenarios involving 8 and 24 aircraft, respectively. The results show that our protocol has significantly fewer leaked packets than comparative protocols, but at a slightly higher cost in terms of longer packet lifetime.

Comparative Analysis of TCP, TCP-Vegas, and SCTP in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) is a collection of mobiles and smart devices that communicates using wireless links. These types of networks are growing at the lightning speed and are being used at a large scale than ever before because of their high availability and mobility. As the usage of MANET devices increase, the challenges also increase for example the proper delivery of data or information to every mobile node. Traditionally, transmission control protocol (TCP) is used for delivery but it does not fit in all scenarios due to some of its limitations such as network congestion and quick recovery in case of link failure. In this, a comparative analysis of TCP is performed with the stream control transmission protocol (SCTP) and a TCP variant called TCP VEGAS. Several ad hoc scenarios are proposed with varying numbers of mobile nodes, i.e. 11, 21 and 31. The results obtained indicate that SCTP outperforms TCP and VEGAS in throughput. While using SCTP the packet lifetime is also small i.e. 0.19 seconds. The link utilization of SCTP is better than TCP and VEGAS. However, TCP increases its link utilization more than VEGAS for the nodes in MANET of large delay.

An enhanced fuzzy-based clustering protocol with an improved shuffled frog leaping algorithm for WSNs

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), an important technology for the Internet of Things (IoT), consist of the communications among small sensor nodes in a large-scale network. Due to the limited battery capacity of each small node, a clustering-based approach is used to conserve energy among the nodes and increase the network lifetime. The tasks of a clustering-based protocol are related mainly to the selection of the most appropriate cluster head nodes (CHs) and next-hop nodes (NHs) based on many influencing factors that require an optimal decision criterion, which can be addressed using a fuzzy inference system (FIS). Although FISs can provide satisfying decisions for selecting CHs and NHs for clustering protocols, FIS components such as fuzzy input variables, fuzzy rules, and fuzzy membership functions continue to be defined manually in most methods. Thus, these parameters must be tuned appropriately for specific applications. Therefore, in this paper, an enhanced fuzzy-based clustering protocol and an improved shuffled frog leaping algorithm (ISFLA) are proposed. In the proposed protocol, named EFC-ISFLA, a fuzzy-based clustering protocol optimized by the ISFLA is developed to maintain the network lifetime. The appropriate CHs are selected based on the energy threshold and optimized FIS with respect to the distance between adjacent CHs defined by the overlay boundary, resulting in reduced energy consumption and a longer network lifetime. Additionally, cluster formation and NH selection are performed based on the optimized FISs. A new encoding scheme is also designed to tune the network parameters and the FIS components simultaneously through the ISFLA. In the ISFLA, opposition-based operators and a surrogate model are adopted to address the limitations of the traditional SFLA. The experimental results show that the proposed technique provides better results in terms of maximizing the network lifetime, network stability, and total number of data packets delivered to the base station (BS).

Multilayer Video Encoding for QoS Managing of Video Streaming in VANET Environment

Efficient delivery and maintenance of the quality of service (QoS) of audio/video streams transmitted over VANETs for mobile and heterogeneous nodes are one of the major challenges in the convergence of this network type and these services. In this context, we propose an inter-layer approach for multimedia stream transmission in a VANET environment (VSMENET). The main idea of our work is based on the dynamic adaptation of the transmission rate according to the physical rate available in the VANET. VSMENET is all about eliminating downtime during video playback by vehicle users. This involves adapting the quality of the video to the actual performance of the VANETs, intelligent encoding of video on the Road Side Units (RSU) side, and finally continuous maintenance of the calculation tasks on the RSU side and sufficient video data on the vehicle node side. Thus, we are interested in the process of evaluating the strict parameters of the VANETs, influencing the video transmission. For example, we propose, on the one hand, an architecture for intelligent data selection and good clock synchronization, and, on the other hand, efficient management of the availability and consumption of video data. We used the NetSim simulator to test the proposed approach performance. To this end, several algorithms such as OCLFEC, MAC, ShieldHEVC, and AntArmour have been implemented for such a performance comparison. Our work suggests that VSMENET is well concerning the average lifetime of the video packets and their delivery rate (more than 9% gain compared with other approaches).

Discrete-time simulation for performance modelling of FIFO single-server queuing system

Optimal queue management is crucial for improving the network operation since packet loss is commonly attributed to the likelihood of buffer overflow at intermediate routers on end-to-end communication path. In this paper, a transient discrete-time simulation model is proposed based on queuing theory served by single-server system and single first-in first-out (FIFO) queue. This queuing service framework effectively enforces the best-effort service to the streams of incoming data packets across the network with disparate quality of service (QoS) requirements. We plot the network performance measures such as queue length, delay, server utilisation and packet lifetime to validate the practical wireless systems. Besides, we employ conventional multiple-objective genetic algorithm to model the trade-off among key queuing system parameters including queuing delay, packet drop rate and network bandwidth. Finally, the efficiency of our queuing optimisation model is significantly compared with previous works in terms of bandwidth utilisation, delay, and packet loss rate.

Buffer-aided relay selection for secure communication in two-hop wireless networks with limited packet lifetime

Buffer-aided relay selection serves as one of the key approaches for achieving physical layer security (PLS) of wireless networks. Existing studies on buffer-aided relay selection mainly concentrate on the scenarios where transmitted packets have unlimited lifetime, while the more practical and important scenarios with limited packet lifetime remain largely unexplored. This paper therefore aims to study the buffer-aided relay selection for achieving PLS in two-hop wireless networks with limited packet lifetime. We first propose a novel buffer-aided relay selection scheme by carefully considering the remaining lifetimes of packets, conditions of available links and channel state information (CSI) of eavesdroppers. To model the security and reliability performances achieved by the proposed scheme, we then apply tools from the Markov chain theory to derive expressions of the secrecy outage probability (SOP) and the packet discarding probability (PDP) of the network, respectively. Finally, extensive simulation and numerical results are provided to illustrate the performances of our proposed scheme and our theoretical framework. The results show that although our scheme achieves a slightly higher SOP than the typical buffer-aided max-link relay selection scheme, it can greatly reduce the PDP of the network.

Discrete-time simulation for performance modelling of FIFO single-server queuing system

Optimal queue management is crucial for improving the network operation since packet loss is commonly attributed to the likelihood of buffer overflow at intermediate routers on end-to-end communication path. In this paper, a transient discrete-time simulation model is proposed based on queuing theory served by single-server system and single first-in first-out (FIFO) queue. This queuing service framework effectively enforces the best-effort service to the streams of incoming data packets across the network with disparate quality of service (QoS) requirements. We plot the network performance measures such as queue length, delay, server utilisation and packet lifetime to validate the practical wireless systems. Besides, we employ conventional multiple-objective genetic algorithm to model the trade-off among key queuing system parameters including queuing delay, packet drop rate and network bandwidth. Finally, the efficiency of our queuing optimisation model is significantly compared with previous works in terms of bandwidth utilisation, delay, and packet loss rate.

Energy efficiency of organized cluster election method in wireless sensor networks

<p><span lang="EN-US">In this paper, we propose a new approach to improve the protocol LEACH performance. It has been accomplished by increasing the energy balancing in clusters among all nodes to minimize the energy dissipation during network communications. The improved method is based on an optimized selection of cluster head. The development of this approach has indicated progress in terms of network lifetime, energy consumption and number of packets transferred to base station, compared to LEACH or other related extended spaces protocols. Mathematical analysis and simulations results show the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The energy consumption of WSN has been reduced up to about 3.5 %. The network life cycle is prolonged by 44 %. The number of packets sent has been increased by 185 % than LEACH.</span></p>

NSGA-II with ENLU inspired clustering for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have a large number of existing applications and is continuously increasing. Thus it is envisioned that WSN will become an integral part of our life in the near future. Direct propagation, chain formation, cluster creation are various techniques by which data is communicated by sensor nodes to the sink. It has been proved that Clustering is an efficient and scalable method to utilize the energy of sensor nodes efficiently. Optimal election of cluster heads is an NP (non deterministic polynomial time)-Hard problem. In our proposed work, a multi-objective optimization algorithm, non dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II based clustering in wireless sensor networks has been proposed. Energy conservation, network lifetime, coverage and load balancing are the four conflicting objective functions used. Our proposed algorithm handles all of these multiple objectives simultaneously. To reduce the computational complexity of the algorithm, efficient non-dominated level update mechanism for sorting has been used, which eliminates the need of applying non dominated sorting from scratch every time. The algorithm returns a solution set consisting of multiple non dominated solutions, wherein every solution is a best solution according to some objective function, in a single run, from which any solution can be chosen based on user preferences. According to our simulation carried on MATLAB, the proposed approach outperforms the established clustering algorithms in terms of network characteristics such as network lifetime, energy consumption and number of packets received.

Distribution of Data Dissemination Model using DTN Routing Protocols

In this research paper compare the protocol’s performance together with the experimental results of optimal routing using real-life scenarios of vehicles and pedestrians roaming in a city. In this research paper, conduct several simulation comparison experiments(in the NS2 Software) to show the impact of changing buffer capacity, packet lifetime, packet generation rate, and number of nodes on the performance metrics. This research paper is concluded by providing guidelines to develop an efficient DTN routing protocol. To the best of researcher(Parameswari et al.,) knowledge, this work is the first to provide a detailed performance comparison among the diverse collection of DTN routing protocols.

Optimal Cluster Head Selection and Clustering for WSN Using PSO

Nowadays, Wireless Sensor Network is the promising and booming technology used in a variety of applications like disaster monitoring, health care, environmental monitoring, agriculture, industrial automation, etc. However the main drawback of the wireless sensor network is the limited energy source of the sensor nodes. Consequently, efficient utilization of the energy becomes essential for increasing the lifetime of network. Clustering protocol is one of the best energy efficient approach for saving the energy and maximizing the network lifetime. But the improper selection of cluster heads (CHs) may lead to the death of the CHs which deteriorate the performance of the network. Therefore the proper selection of cluster head becomes important for the energy conservation of sensor nodes and to maximize the lifetime of network. In this paper, we have presented PSO based optimal cluster head selection algorithm, in which the best possible CHs are chosen on the basis of parameters like residual energy, intra-cluster distance, and inter-cluster distance of the sensor node. With the effective scheme of particle encoding and fitness function, the proposed PSO algorithm is implemented for reducing the energy consumption and improving lifetime of network. The proposed algorithm also ensures the uniform distribution of the energy over network, by changing the role of CHs after each round. We extend our research to cluster formation approach where the sensor nodes are joined to the CH on the basis distance and energy of cluster head. The proposed algorithm is simulated extensively under various conditions like number of sensor nodes in the field, number of CHs, the position of the base station, constant energy and random energy, etc. and the simulation results are analyzed with the extant algorithms. Under all the circumstances the proposed algorithm outperforms the existing LEACH and SEP protocols in terms of average residual energy, the network lifetime and number of data packets received by the base station. Because of the improvement in the lifetime of the network, the proposed algorithm can be used in the applications like environmental monitoring, agriculture etc.

Packet delivery ratio and energy consumption in multicast delay tolerant MANETs with power control

The packet delivery ratio and energy consumption serve as important performance metrics for delay tolerant mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), where there are not continuous end-to-end paths between mobile nodes. Available these performance studies of MANETs mainly consider a unicast scenario, i.e., one source node has only one destination node, which cannot be applied to evaluate the performance of such networks under a multicast scenario, i.e, one source node has multiple destination nodes. Different from previous studies, the paper investigates the packet delivery ratio and energy consumption under multicast scenario with careful consideration of transmission power control issue for each node. To this end, we adopt a general two-hop relay RT-(f, d, τ, w) algorithm with redundancy factor f, multicast scale d, packet lifetime τ and power control parameter w for packet routing, where a packet at source node can be delivered to up to f different relay nodes, and each of d destination nodes may receive the packet from these relay nodes or the source node before the packet lifetime τ expires. In MANETs, each scenario has a fixed power control parameter w, which is the same for all nodes. Then we develop a Markov chain framework to depict the packet propagation process under the RT-(f, d, τ, w) algorithm. Based on this framework, we derive two analytical expressions for packet delivery ratio and energy consumption. Finally, simulation and numerical results are provided to validate our theoretical analysis and to explore how the network parameters affect the packet delivery ratio and energy consumption performance.

A Novel Low-Latency V2V Resource Allocation Scheme Based on Cellular V2X Communications

In vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), cellular vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) is an emerging technology for communications between vehicle-to-infrastructure, vehicle-to-pedestrian, and vehicle-to-network which improves traffic efficiency, road safety, and the availability of infotainment services. Herein, a novel V2V-enabled resource allocation scheme based on C-V2X technology is proposed to improve the reliability and latency of VANETs. The key idea is that V2V communications based on cellular-V2X technology among vehicles remove the contention latency and can assist for longer distance communications. Particularly, we propose a hybrid architecture, where the V2V links are controlled by the cellular eNodeB in the overlay scheme. In this scheme, every vehicle periodically checks its packet lifetime and requests the cellular eNodeB to determine V2V links. The optimum resource allocation problem at the cellular eNodeB is to choose optimum receiver vehicles to determine V2V links and allocate suitable channels to minimize the total latency. This problem is equivalent to the maximum weighted independent set problem (MWIS-AW) with associated weights, which is NP-hard. In order to compute the weights, an analytical approach is developed to model the expected latency and packet delivery ratio. Moreover, a greedy cellular-based V2V link selection algorithm is proposed to solve MWIS-AW problem and develop a theoretical performance lower bound. Simulation results show that the proposed scheme significantly outperforms the existing schemes in terms of latency, throughput, and packet delivery ratio.

Packet transmission with a lifetime constraint in scale-free networks

In this paper, we study how the lifetime of packets impacts the overall transmission capacity of scale-free communication networks. In our model, we observed an abrupt phase transition of packet loss rate when the packet generation rate increases, based on which we redefined the network capacity as the critical packet generation rate of packet loss. Then, we found a sharp phase transition of network capacity with the increase of packet lifetime, which is also predicted by our analytical results of network capacity. Moreover, we obtained that there is an optimal routing parameter of the tunable path routing algorithm corresponding to the maximum network capacity. Finally, we discussed the influence of network topological structure on the network capacity.

Generalized Cooperative Multicast in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Cooperative multicast serves as an efficient communication paradigm for supporting multicast-intensive applications in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Available studies on cooperative multicast in MANETs mainly focus on either the full cooperation or the noncooperation, which fail to capture the more general cooperation behaviors among destination nodes. To address this issue, this paper proposes a general cooperative multicast scheme CM( $f,g, p,\tau$ ) with replication factor $f$ , multicast fanout $g$ , cooperative probability $p$ , and packet lifetime $\tau$ . With this scheme, a packet from source node will be replicated to at most $f$ distinct relay nodes, which forward the packet to its $g$ destination nodes, and with probability $p$ a destination node helps to forward the packet. Here, the packet has the lifetime of $\tau$ time slots. The scheme is flexible and general, and it covers the full cooperation ( $p = 1$ ) and the noncooperation ( $p = 0$ ) as special cases. A Markov chain theoretical model is further developed to depict the packet delivery process under the new scheme and help us to conduct analytical study on the corresponding expected packet delivery probability and packet delivery cost. Finally, extensive simulation and numerical results are provided for discussions.

Practical Performance of MANETs Under Limited Buffer and Packet Lifetime

While scaling law results on the performance of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) have been extensively reported in literature, the exact performance of such networks, particularly their real achievable performance under practical network constraints, is still largely unexplored. As one step toward practical performance study for MANETs, this paper considers a MANET with constraints on both buffer size and packet lifetime and explores the impacts of such constraints on network performance. Analysis on the exact throughput capacity of the network is first provided to reveal its maximum possible and input rate-independent throughput performance. With the help of the embedded Markov chain theory, a complete theoretical framework is then developed, which enables the achievable and input rate-dependent throughput and packet loss ratio to be derived in closed form under any exogenous rate. Based on the $M/G/1/K$ queueing theory, the packet end-to-end delay under any exogenous rate is further studied to give a relatively whole picture on how buffer size and packet lifetime impact the network throughput, packet loss ratio, and packet delay.

Adaptive Interest Packet Lifetime Due to Pending Interest Table Overflow

Adaptive Interest Packet Lifetime Due to Pending Interest Table Overflow

Effects of packet retransmission with finite packet lifetime on traffic capacity in scale-free networks

Existing routing strategies such as the global dynamic routing [X. Ling, M. B. Hu, R. Jiang and Q. S. Wu, Phys. Rev. E 81, 016113 (2010)] can achieve very high traffic capacity at the cost of extremely long packet traveling delay. In many real complex networks, especially for real-time applications such as the instant communication software, extremely long packet traveling time is unacceptable. In this work, we propose to assign a finite Time-to-Live (TTL) parameter for each packet. To guarantee every packet to arrive at its destination within its TTL, we assume that a packet is retransmitted by its source once its TTL expires. We employ source routing mechanisms in the traffic model to avoid the routing-flaps induced by the global dynamic routing. We compose extensive simulations to verify our proposed mechanisms. With small TTL, the effects of packet retransmission on network traffic capacity are obvious, and the phase transition from flow free state to congested state occurs. For the purpose of reducing the computation frequency of the routing table, we employ a computing cycle [Formula: see text] within which the routing table is recomputed once. The simulation results show that the traffic capacity decreases with increasing [Formula: see text]. Our work provides a good insight into the understanding of effects of packet retransmission with finite packet lifetime on traffic capacity in scale-free networks.

An Improved Zone-Based Routing Protocol for Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks

In this paper, an improved zone-based routing protocol for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks is proposed. The proposed protocol has fixed the sized zone according to the distance from the base station and used a dynamic clustering technique for advanced nodes to select a cluster head with maximum residual energy to transmit the data. In addition, we select an optimal route with minimum energy consumption for normal nodes and conserve energy by state transition throughout data transmission. Simulation results indicated that the proposed protocol performed better than the other algorithm by reducing energy consumption and providing a longer network lifetime and better throughput of data packets.

On Optimal Device-to-Device Resource Allocation for Minimizing End-to-End Delay in VANETs

In vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), the IEEE 802.11p is a popular and standardized protocol for communications among vehicles and infrastructure (e.g., roadside units). However, because of a limited communication range and the randomly access nature of the carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) mechanism, the end-to-end delay could be high due to both store-and-catch-up (SAC) delay when the network is temporally disconnected and the channel access contention delay. In this paper, we propose a new method based on fifth-generation device-to-device (D2D) technology to improve the delay performance of VANETs. The basic idea is that direct D2D-based communications among vehicles remove the contention delay and can support longer distance. Specifically, we design a hybrid system with both D2D- and IEEE 802.11p-based communications, where the D2D links are controlled by the cellular base stations (BSs) in the overlay scheme. Each vehicle periodically checks its packet lifetime and requests the BSs to establish D2D links, if needed. The optimal resource allocation problem at the BSs is to select optimal receiver vehicles to establish D2D links and assign proper channels for them so that the total delay is minimized. The problem is equivalent to a maximum weighted independent set problem with dependent weights (MWIS-DW), which is NP-hard. To calculate the weights, an analytical approach is developed to model the expected end-to-end delay. Furthermore, we propose a greedy-based algorithm to solve this problem and develop a theoretical performance lower bound for the algorithm. The effectiveness of the algorithm under various scenarios is evaluated through simulations.