Life Cycle Assessment Standards Research Articles

From value-added tax to a damage and value-added tax partially based on life cycle assessment: principles and feasibility

PurposeThe purpose of this article is to examine the arguments in favor of a shift from value-added tax (VAT) or sales tax to a damage and value-added tax (DaVAT) partially based on the life cycle assessment (LCA) of goods and services. With this shift, goods and services that seriously harm the environment and human health will be priced up, those that impact them less will be priced down. The paper recalls the proposal made by De Camillis and Goralczyk (Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:263–272, 2013) to differentiate the VAT rate associated with products according to their environmental impacts over their life cycle. The paper suggests a new way to convert VAT into DaVAT, examines the operating principles of such a system, and considers its practical feasibility. The new policy tool based on LCA presented is intended to be applied to every country wishing to reform its consumption tax system in order to strive for a more sustainable future. Some aspects specific to countries having the same currency, notably the Euro zone, are also discussed.MethodsThe proposal of De Camillis and Goralczyk is discussed from the perspective of both environmental performance and compliance with LCA standards. To overcome the identified difficulties, a new way of adapting VAT (or consumption taxes in general) according to LCA is suggested. The proposal relies on three essential points: (i) apply VAT (or consumption taxes in general) to all goods and services and reduce its multiple rates to one single low rate (e.g., 3%) called uniform VAT (UVAT); (ii) add to UVAT a per-unit tax called global damage tax (GDT) calculated on the basis of environmental impacts assessed by means of specific or generic LCAs. In the case of potentially high-polluting products or industries, a specific LCA will be automatically imposed. The obligation to assess high-polluting activities already exists in many countries with, e.g., environmental impact studies, but the impacts are not necessarily evaluated by LCA; (iii) in order to reflect environmental, social, or ethical concerns specific to a country, another damage tax termed specific damage tax (SDT) is proposed that extends beyond LCA. DaVAT is the sum of UVAT, GDT, and SDT. DaVAT is conceived not as an additional burden but rather as a shift of taxation, as the rate of the old consumption taxes can decrease proportionally to the increase of GDT. DaVAT is also designed in such a way that the erosion of tax revenues, when pollutant would decline, is offset by the extension of the tax to all goods and services and by the possibility to gradually re-increase the UVAT rate when the number of highly polluting products decreases.Results and discussionThe proposal is examined first from a theoretical point of view by considering which principles should be used to comply with LCA standards and general requirements of (environmental) tax policies. Four general principles emerge: consistency in the choice of the functional unit and in the characterization, normalization and weighting methods, transparency of information about the environmental score of the product, evolution capacity of the levers of the tax and of the assessment methods, respect for national sovereignty concerning the setting of the tax price. The proposal is also examined from a practical point of view by asking how the DaVAT system would work in practice. The answer takes into account associated costs, risks of fraud, price changes, and acceptability of the proposal. The issue about price changes is addressed on the basis of a simulation drawn from six published LCA studies on different products.ConclusionsThe proposal to replace most of the VAT or sales tax with a unitary global damage tax based on LCA of goods and services seems to meet expectations not only in terms of theoretical consistency and practical feasibility but also from the perspective of income tax consolidation, environmental efficiency, and sustainable growth. The study concludes by pointing out the limits of an LCA-based tax and by suggesting a framework for a closer examination of the DaVAT system in order to verify that it would provide the intended incentives and to explore the modalities of its implementation.

Attributional or consequential Life Cycle Assessment: A matter of social responsibility

Results of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are critically dependent on the system boundaries, notably the choice of attributional or consequential modelling. Published LCA studies rarely specify and justify their modelling choices. Since LCA studies are typically performed within the context of social responsibility and product life cycle management, this article investigates the relationship between social responsibility paradigms and the system modelling choices in LCA. We identify three different social responsibility paradigms: Value chain responsibility, Supply chain responsibility and Consequential responsibility. We point out that while there is no generally right or wrong choice of system model, each responsibility paradigm implies a specific matching system model. We then argue that all responsibility paradigms ultimately imply a consequential perspective, namely that of responding to the concerns of the system stakeholders. Although value or supply chains are systems defined without concern for consequences, and thus may include activities that the decision maker cannot influence, the chosen system is still analysed and assessed by accounting for its social consequences, and it is for these consequences that social responsibility is then taken. We argue that it is inconsistent to exclude consequences of own actions (i.e. the consequential system) while including consequences from actions of others in value chain or supply chain. We thus conclude that a consistent socially responsible decision-maker must always take responsibility for the activities in the consequential product life cycle and may additionally take responsibility for the consequences of other activities in the value chain or supply chain. We end the article with recommendations on reporting on LCA system models that are more specific than those of the current LCA standards.

Application of Eco-Design and Life Cycle Assessment Standards for Environmental Impact Reduction of an Industrial Product

Eco-design is included within the framework of the standard for “Environmental management systems—Guidelines for incorporating Eco-design” (ISO 14006:2011). Eco-design process, as defined in standard, has six steps: (i) Specify product functions; (ii) Environmental assessment of products; (iii) Strategies of improvement; (iv) Environmental objectives; (v) Product specification; and (vi) Technical solutions. Step (ii), determination of the stage or process of the product life cycle that has the highest environmental impact; this is perhaps the most controversial step because the standard does not specify which tool should be used. This lack of specification has generated some distrust with regard to eco-design, hindering its development. In order to make a trustworthy eco-design, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) should be applied as a tool for environmental impact quantification. The main objective of this work is to apply standardised eco-design methodology for the reduction of the environmental impact of an industrial product in Spain using LCA as a tool for the environmental product assessment. LCA standardised process (ISO 14040,14044:2006) is included in the eco-design process. A glass container intended for cough syrup delivery has been selected as an industrial product to be eco-designed. Following the methodology described, the overall normalised impact decreased 35.1% when a PET container substituted a glass container. Environmental impacts have been reduced following standardised eco-design and LCA methodologies, serving as an example to industry and administration regarding how to eco-design with the confidence of obtaining reliable results.

Agent‐Based Modeling of Temporal and Spatial Dynamics in Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment

SummaryCurrent aggregate and top‐down approaches in life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) generally fail to account for spatial, temporal, and emergent behavioral dynamics simultaneously during the inventory stage. We discuss the key characteristics captured by complex system approaches (agent‐based modeling [ABM] in particular) in the context of LCSA. It is understood that by integrating ABM, temporal, spatial, and behavioral dynamics can be addressed during the life cycle inventory stage. We propose a general concept to integrate ABM into current building life cycle assessment standards. We then use a hypothetical example of green building development to compare the ABM approach with a predefined static policy model. Simulation results from the agent‐based model confirm that there are temporal and spatial variations caused by behavioral dynamics. The results are integrated into the calculation of temporally dynamic LCSA indicators on an annual basis. Spatially distributed simulation results can also be used in spatially dynamic LCSA.

Bridging the Gap from Pilot Plant Experimental Records to Life Cycle Inventory

Conducting life cycle assessment (LCA) at pilot-scale can help chemical and pharmaceutical industries to generate environmental load data, identify environmental hotspots, and provide options for building sustainable manufacturing plants from the process design and development stage. However, collecting life cycle inventory (LCI) data is time intensive and may be arduous for process development. In this paper, a systematic methodology was developed to bridge quickly the gaps between pilot plant operation and LCI and, also, scale up to predict LCI at industrial scale. According to the ISO 14040 series of standards for LCA, the methodology classifies various data-available scenarios and integrates experimental measurements with engineering and empirical calculations to provide suitable data for LCI. This methodology builds a reliable, convenient, and easy to follow basis, which enables industrial process developers to gain a much clearer view of the environmental footprint at the process design stage, there...

New and updated life cycle inventories for surfactants used in European detergents: summary of the ERASM surfactant life cycle and ecofootprinting project

PurposeCradle-to-gate life cycle inventories (LCIs) for the production of a series of common surfactants used in European detergents and personal care products have been voluntarily compiled by 14 major companies collaborating within ERASM (www.erasm.org). The study builds on a similar project executed by CEFIC-Franklin (1994) and summarised by Stalmans et al. (Tenside Surf Det 32:84–109, 1995). The data are targeted as an industry-agreed and representative market average for surfactants in Europe for the reference year 2011. The purpose of this paper is to describe how these dataset were generated, to provide some summary results and interpretation, and to indicate where the full datasets and additional technical documentation can be found.MethodsThe methodology followed was an attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, compliant with LCA standards ISO 14040 (2006), ISO 14044 (2006), and ILCD entry level (2010). For each major unit process in the production of surfactants and precursors, a minimum of three companies (a ‘trio’) was identified. When no industry-specific data were available, either literature or recent and reliable process data were used. For worldwide traded precursor materials like palm oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, an extensive literature-based LCI study was performed. Two independent external reviewers supported the project from the beginning through completion. In addition, the oil palm and coconut- and tallow-based renewable precursors were reviewed by a third independent expert.Results and discussionIn the study, a good level of representativeness was achieved with 70 primary data collections in 12 companies. To illustrate the outcome of the work, two indicators/impacts were calculated and reported, i.e. primary energy demand (PED) and global warming potential (GWP). The LCIs allow the calculation of additional impact categories, but these were not analysed within the scope of this project.The PED for most of the surfactants and their precursors is in the range of 52 to 77 GJ/tonne. Exceptions are the production of cocamide diethanolamine (CDEA) and C16–C18 triethanolamine esterquat (TEA-quat) with a PED of around 40 GJ/tonne, and 3-dimethylaminopropylamine (DMAPA) around 108 GJ/tonne. Petrochemical precursors show an intensive but established and optimised supply chain. Where comparison is possible, their PED does not differ much from the earlier CEFIC-Franklin (1994) data. There are indications that PED for surfactant production has decreased slightly over the last 20 years due to energy efficiency measures.The GWP for the reportable precursors ranges from − 1989 kg CO2e/tonne for Coconut Oil Methyl Ester to 4894 kg CO2e/tonne for DMAPA. For the final surfactants, the range is from − 887 kg CO2e/tonne for CDEA to 2674 kg CO2e/tonne for C12–C15 AE3. There is a significant difference between the cradle-to-gate GWP of the renewable precursors palm oil/palm kernel oil (PO/PKO) and coconut oil (CNO). The CNO products have a calculated net negative cradle-to-gate GWP, while the PO/PKO products have a net positive GWP. The latter is mainly attributable to the land use change (LUC) factor and plantings on peat soils. Beef tallow also has a net negative GWP of − 1529 kg CO2e/tonne. This value is very sensitive to the allocation choice.ConclusionsThe industry average LCI data and linked metadata are made publically available as aggregated datasets in three different formats (EcoSpold v.2, ILCD, and GaBi 6 2013). They benefit from increased methodological standardisation and a more complete background process data versus the CEFIC-Franklin (1994) study, but are therefore only partially comparable. It is recommended that the surfactant LCI data are used and interpreted in a finished product cradle-to-grave context.

Introducing a new section in the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment: Critical Review and Life Cycle Assessment Standards

Introducing a new section in the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment: Critical Review and Life Cycle Assessment Standards

Environmental assessment of bioproducts in development stage: The case of fiberboards made from coconut residues

Fiberboards made from agro-industrial residues have been developed recently to add value to residues and decrease demand for wood and its byproducts. Nonetheless, new bioproducts made from residues are not inherently beneficial to the environment and bring no guarantee of improved efficiency in the use of resources, when compared to standard products. The impacts of these new bioproducts shall be compared to standard products to foster improvements and reduce potential harms to the environment from the development stage. This study assesses the environmental impacts of new coconut husk-based fiberboards, at development stage, aiming to prioritize those for future improvements and up-scaling. The following fiberboards are analyzed: i) MDF made exclusively of coir and fiber; ii) MDF UF made of coir and fiber bonded with urea-formaldehyde; and iii) HDF made only of coir and fiber. This assessment is performed considering different scenarios for allocation procedures (mass and economic, for current and future husk market value) and production scales (lab and pilot). The up-scaled husk-based fiberboards are compared to commercial wood-based panels to support decision about which products should be further improved. Short and long-term research agendas are proposed for reducing the potential impacts of these new products. This cradle to gate study is based on the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards for life cycle assessment, considering the production of fiberboards with 6.05*10−5 m3, at laboratory scale, and 1 m3, at pilot scale. The results show that husk-based MDF and HDF have high potential in terms of environmental performance. Nonetheless, they still require improvements to better compete with wood-based fiberboards when mass allocation is the criteria applied in the product modelling system. The hotspot analysis of MDF and HDF highlights the need to reduce impacts in husk transportation and processing, as well as in coconut farming. Two research agendas are proposed to improve MDF and HDF environmental performances: i) a short-term agenda, focused on reducing transportation distances and reusing nutrient rich effluents from husk processing in crop irrigation; and ii) a long-term agenda, focused on reducing the dependence of coconut farming in commercial fertilizers and improving the efficiency of irrigation. From this environmental assessment, the importance of applying both mass and economic allocation in the study of new bio-based products is shown. Furthermore, the need to design and evaluate up-scaled processes, at laboratory stage, in order to make meaningful choices among products is also highlighted. The methodological framework adopted in this study may support research teams searching to improve the environmental performance of products from laboratory stage.

Advances and critical aspects in the life-cycle assessment of battery electric cars

Advances and critical aspects in the life-cycle assessment of battery electric cars Eckard Helmers,1 Martin Weiss2 1Department of Environmental Planning and Technology, Environment Campus Birkenfeld, University of Applied Sciences Trier, Birkenfeld, Germany; 2Sustainable Transport Unit, Directorate C – Energy, Transport and Climate, European Commission – DG Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy Abstract: Concerns over climate change, air pollution, and oil supply have stimulated the market for battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The environmental impacts of BEVs are typically evaluated through a standardized life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Here, the LCA literature was surveyed with the objective to sketch the major trends and challenges in the impact assessment of BEVs. It was found that BEVs tend to be more energy efficient and less polluting than conventional cars. BEVs decrease exposure to air pollution as their impacts largely result from vehicle production and electricity generation outside of urban areas. The carbon footprint of BEVs, being highly sensitive to the carbon intensity of the electricity mix, may decrease in the nearby future through a shift to renewable energies and technology improvements in general. A minority of LCAs covers impact categories other than carbon footprint, revealing a mixed picture. Up to date little attention is paid so far in LCA to the efficiency advantage of BEVs in urban traffic, the gap between on-road and certified energy consumption, the local exposure to air pollutants and noise and the aging of emissions control technologies in conventional cars. Improvements of BEV components, directed charging, second-life reuse of vehicle batteries, as well as vehicle-to-home and vehicle-to-grid applications will significantly reduce the environmental impacts of BEVs in the future. Keywords: toxic emissions, China, energy use, carbon footprint, impact categories, environmental impact, health impact

Life cycle assessment of wood-plastic composites: Analysing alternative materials and identifying an environmental sound end-of-life option

In the drive towards a sustainable Bioeconomy, a growing interest in the development of composite materials made of plastics compounded with wood particles, known as wood-plastic composites (WPC), can be observed. Wood is seen as one of the cornerstones for sustainable economic growth, while the use of thermoplastics from hydrocarbon fossil resources and additives for WPC potentially cause severe environmental impacts along the entire life cycle. In this study, the life cycle stages of raw material supply and end-of-life pathways of WPC were assessed environmentally from different perspectives with life cycle assessment (LCA). The utilization of alternative raw materials reflected the WPC producer’s point of view. Harmonized product LCA standards were applied and combined with physical parameters of actually produced composites to give credit to substitution potentials in terms of resource quality. The downstream pathways of post-consumer WPC products reflected the recycler’s perspective. A system LCA approach was needed where systems with equal functions were generated to secure a comparison of end-of-life (EoL) treatment systems. Results showed that WPC produced from secondary materials is the ecologically and technically superior alternative. Recycling of the composites would be the ecologically preferable pathway, but the recycled WPC content in novel WPC is a sensitive issue when comparing both EoL treatment systems. Yet, incineration of the composites is the predominant EoL pathway due to current recycling directives and lack of markets for secondary WPC material.

Insulation Cork Boards-Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of an Organic Construction Material.

Envelope insulation is a relevant technical solution to cut energy consumption and reduce environmental impacts in buildings. Insulation Cork Boards (ICB) are a natural thermal insulation material whose production promotes the recycling of agricultural waste. The aim of this paper is to determine and evaluate the environmental impacts of the production, use, and end-of-life processing of ICB. A “cradle-to-cradle” environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was performed according to International LCA standards and the European standards on the environmental evaluation of buildings. These results were based on site-specific data and resulted from a consistent methodology, fully described in the paper for each life cycle stage: Cork oak tree growth, ICB production, and end-of-life processing-modeling of the carbon flows (i.e., uptakes and emissions), including sensitivity analysis of this procedure; at the production stage—the modeling of energy processes and a sensitivity analysis of the allocation procedures; during building operation—the expected service life of ICB; an analysis concerning the need to consider the thermal diffusivity of ICB in the comparison of the performance of insulation materials. This paper presents the up-to-date “cradle-to-cradle” environmental performance of ICB for the environmental categories and life-cycle stages defined in European standards.

Global warming potential of intensive wheat production in the Yaqui Valley, Mexico: a resource for the design of localized mitigation strategies

A reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from productive activities can contribute to climate change mitigation by diminishing the future impacts on natural and socioeconomic systems. Nitrous oxide is one of the most important GHGs and agriculture represents its main anthropogenic source. Using a standardized life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, this study aims to identify and quantify the GHG emissions associated with the different stages of wheat production using local information to develop localized climate change mitigation strategies in one of the most intensive agricultural areas in the world. A set of mitigation scenarios created based on inputs and information obtained directly from producer's associations and farmers were evaluated. These scenarios range from the traditional approaches to the more innovative strategies currently being applied. They are considered to maintain the same yields considering changes mainly in fertilization, tillage and machinery efficiency. We found that the main source of GHGs in wheat production in the Yaqui Valley is fertilizing, with an average of 83% of the life cycle emissions in all the production scenarios proposed. The second contributing activity is tillage, accounting for 13% of Global Warming Potential (GWP) in conventional systems and 1% with ‘no tillage’ strategies. Results show that the manufacture of fertilizers accounted for 42% of the fertilizing emissions and 35% of the total life cycle emissions of wheat. In addition, by using more efficient tractors that decreased diesel inputs, emissions from conventional tillage can be reduced by 33% and emissions from no tillage can be reduced by 24%. The application of the LCA methodology allowed providing a more detailed quantification of the GHG and environmental impacts of different wheat production processes. Compared to other studies, the mitigation strategies developed from this work have a better chance of being adopted by producers because there were developed based on the actual practices proposed by the farmers and consider existing approaches currently being promoted by producer's associations for cost reduction purposes. In this sense, the results of this LCA suggest that implementation of innovation strategies in fertilizing, tillage, and machinery efficiency can both reduce costs and mitigate GHG emissions in intensive wheat production systems all over the world.

The environmental impact of the production of fresh cut salad: a case study in Italy

Fresh-cut processed vegetables are defined as those subjected to some processing techniques of lesser magnitude than canning or freezing, which, nevertheless, add value to the product. The fresh-cut market represents about 18 % of the entire economic value of the fruit and vegetable market in Italy, and 2 % of the total food market. Over the past two decades, worldwide awareness regarding environmental issues has consistently increased: environmental aspect is now one of the variables taken into consideration by consumers during the purchasing process. The aim of this study is to evaluate the environmental burdens of one bag of fresh-cut salad in order to identify the most critical production phases and suggest possible improvements. Such evaluation is based on the ISO standards for life cycle assessment. The selected functional unit is an “average bag” containing 130 g of fresh-cut lamb’s lettuce. Data concerning field operations, processing phases, and transportation to the logistic platforms were obtained directly from the producer, while background and foreground data come from Ecoinvent (Frischknecht et al. 2007). Results show that both the agricultural and the processing phase are the major contributors to the environmental impact of fresh-cut salad. The production of the greenhouse at the agricultural level, the high consumptions of energy, and the use of water at the processing stage represent the main of hotspots of the product considered in this study. The possibility to install a filtration plant for the recovery of 40 % of the washing solution has been evaluated. The reduction of the environmental impact stemming from the introduction of the water filtering system is considerably relevant for some categories. Even though defined as minimally processed food, the environmental burden associated to fresh-cut salad is heavily influenced by the processing phase (washing and packing), which together with the agricultural phase represents the major contributor to overall impact of the product. The transportation stage instead appears to be negligible, probably due to the short distance covered for the product’s distribution in the case study considered.

Area of concern: a new paradigm in life cycle assessment for the development of footprint metrics

As a class of environmental metrics, footprints have been poorly defined, have shared an unclear relationship to life cycle assessment (LCA), and the variety of approaches to quantification have sometimes resulted in confusing and contradictory messages in the marketplace. In response, a task force operating under the auspices of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative project on environmental life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) has been working to develop generic guidance for developers of footprint metrics. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a universal footprint definition and related terminology as well as to discuss modelling implications. The task force has worked from the perspective that footprints should be based on LCA methodology, underpinned by the same data systems and models as used in LCA. However, there are important differences in purpose and orientation relative to LCA impact category indicators. Footprints have a primary orientation toward society and nontechnical stakeholders. They are also typically of narrow scope, having the purpose of reporting only in relation to specific topics. In comparison, LCA has a primary orientation toward stakeholders interested in comprehensive evaluation of overall environmental performance and trade-offs among impact categories. These differences create tension between footprints, the existing LCIA framework based on the area of protection paradigm and the core LCA standards ISO14040/44. In parallel to area of protection, we introduce area of concern as the basis for a universal footprint definition. In the same way that LCA uses impact category indicators to assess impacts that follow a common cause-effect pathway toward areas of protection, footprint metrics address areas of concern. The critical difference is that areas of concern are defined by the interests of stakeholders in society rather than the LCA community. In addition, areas of concern are stand-alone and not necessarily part of a framework intended for comprehensive environmental performance assessment. The area of concern paradigm is needed to support the development of footprints in a way that fulfils their distinctly different purpose. It is also needed as a mechanism to extricate footprints from some of the provisions of ISO 14040/44 which are not considered relevant. Specific issues are identified in relation to double counting, aggregation and the selection of relevant indicators. The universal footprint definition and related terminology introduced in this paper create a foundation that will support the development of footprint metrics in parallel with LCA.

Environmental performance of copper-alloy Net-pens: Life cycle assessment of Atlantic salmon grow-out in copper-alloy and nylon net-pens

The environmental impacts of culturing Atlantic salmon in copper-alloy mesh (CAM) net-pens were studied using infrastructure and operating data from a pilot study in Chile in 2012. The analysis included a comparative assessment of culturing fish in CAM net-pens relative to industry-average Chilean nylon net-pen systems in 2012, and an environmental hot-spot analysis of the CAM net-pen supply chain. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to quantify the environmental performance of both systems in compliance with the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards for LCA, including sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis to test the robustness of the methodology and key assumptions. Results of the study indicated that use of the CAM resulted in improvements in several key performance characteristics, including reductions in feed inputs, on-site energy use, application of antibiotics, and labor hours. These operating performance improvements resulted in reductions in life cycle impacts relative to conventional nylon net-pen systems for nearly all environmental indicators considered, including climate change, acidification, marine ecotoxicity, metal depletion, and cumulative energy demand. The reduced impacts for marine ecotoxicity and metal depletion were a result of lower copper leach rates for the CAM netting relative to nylon netting coated in antifouling paint, as well as the high recyclability of the CAM net material. The recyclability of the CAM nets could result in a more cyclical and sustainable use of copper in the aquaculture industry relative to the one-time use and permanent loss of copper used in anti-fouling paints for nylon nets. The International Copper Association (ICA) is continuing to collect life cycle inventory (LCI) data to further characterize the environmental performance of CAM net-pen systems in an effort to provide further quantitative evidence of the benefits of this emerging alternative to nylon net-pen systems. Statement of relevanceManuscript presents potential benefits of a novel aquaculture technology.

Making green technology greener: Achieving a balance between carbon and resource savings through ecodesign in hydropower systems

Renewable energy systems reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with energy generation. However, we live in a world with depleting reserves of natural resources, and significant quantities of raw materials are often embodied within renewable energy infrastructure. This paper examines the potential for ecodesign measures to improve the GHG and resource balance of five small-scale hydropower case studies (50–650kW). A life cycle assessment (LCA) approach compares two specific environmental impact categories: global warming potential (GWP) and abiotic resource depletion potential (ARDP). A number of ecodesign measures were examined for each installation: powerhouse structure, concrete selection, roofing materials, excavation work and transportation. Ecodesign led to cumulative savings of between 2.1% and 10.4% for GWP, and ARDP savings of between 0.1% and 2.6%, for the hydropower installations. Small savings were made with each ecodesign measure applied in all case studies. Furthermore, applying a 1% materiality threshold as outlined by LCA standards was shown to under-estimate the total project burdens, and to neglect opportunities for burden savings through ecodesign. Ecodesign can promote the use of locally sourced materials and some measures can lead to time savings during the construction process. The findings demonstrate the potential for ecodesign to modestly improve the carbon and resource efficiency of hydropower projects.

Carbon footprint of dairy goat milk production in New Zealand

The aim of this study was to assess the cradle-to-farm gate carbon footprint of indoor and outdoor dairy goat farming systems in New Zealand, identifying hotspots and discussing variability and methodology. Our study was based on the International Organization for Standardization standards for life cycle assessment, although only results for greenhouse gas emissions are presented. Two functional units were included: tonnes of CO2-equivalents (CO2e) per hectare (ha) and kilograms of CO2e per kilogram of fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM). The study covered 5 farms, 2 farming systems, and 3yr. Two methods for the calculation of enteric methane emissions were assessed. The Lassey method, as used in the New Zealand greenhouse gas inventory, provided a more robust estimate of emissions from enteric fermentation and was used in the final calculations. The alternative dry matter intake method was shown to overestimate emissions due to use of anecdotal assumptions around actual consumption of feed. Economic allocation was applied to milk and co-products. Scenario analysis was performed on the allocation method, nitrogen content of manure, manure management, and supplementary feed choice. The average carbon footprint for the indoor farms (n=3) was 11.05 t of CO2e/ha and 0.81kg of CO2e/kg of FPCM. For the outdoor farms (n=2), the average was 5.38 t of CO2e/ha and 1.03kg of CO2e/kg of FPCM. The average for all 5 farms was 8.78 t of CO2e/ha and 0.90kg of CO2e/kg of FPCM. The results showed relatively high variability due to differences in management practices between farms. The 5 farms covered 10% of the total dairy goat farms but may not be representative of an average farm. Methane from enteric fermentation was a major emission source. The use of supplementary feed was highly variable but an important contributor to the carbon footprint. Nitrous oxide can contribute up to 18% of emissions. Indoor goat farming systems produced milk with a significantly higher carbon footprint per area of land farmed compared with outdoor farming systems, although the 2 systems were not significantly different when results were expressed per kilogram of FPCM, at 0.81kg CO2e and 1.03kg CO2e per kg of FPCM, respectively. Both systems had footprints less than other reported dairy goat carbon footprints and on par with those for New Zealand dairy cows. The methodology used to determine enteric methane is important for an accurate and meaningful assessment. The choice of manure management system and supplementary feed can substantially affect the carbon footprint.

Review of methodological choices in LCA of biorefinery systems ‐ key issues and recommendations

AbstractThe current trend in biomass conversion technologies is toward more efficient utilization of biomass feedstock in multiproduct biorefineries. Many life‐cycle assessment (LCA) studies of biorefinery systems have been performed but differ in how they use the LCA methodology. Based on a review of existing LCA standards and guidelines, this paper provides recommendations on how to handle key methodological issues when performing LCA studies of biorefinery systems. Six key issues were identified: (i) goal definition, (ii) functional unit, (iii) allocation of biorefinery outputs, (iv) allocation of biomass feedstock, (v) land use, and (vi) biogenic carbon and timing of emissions. Many of the standards and guidelines reviewed here provide only general methodological recommendations. Some make more specific methodological recommendations, but these often differ between standards. In this paper we present some clarifications (e.g. examples of research questions and suitable functional units) and methodological recommendations (e.g. on allocation). © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

From behind the curtain: talking about values in LCA

Practitioners of life cycle assessment (LCA) acknowledge that more input from social scientists can help advance the cause of life cycle management (LCM). This commentary offers a social science perspective on a long-running question within LCA, namely, how the field should manage not only stakeholders’ values but also those of practitioners themselves. More than 60 interviews were conducted with LCA practitioners and their industry clients. Qualitative data were also collected through participant observation at several LCA and LCM conferences, a study of the field’s history, and extensive content and discourse analysis of LCA publications and online forums. Results show that LCA practitioners’ values are informed partly by the knowledge acquired through their LCA work. At the same time, LCA standards and professional norms implicitly advise practitioners to keep those values out of their work as much as possible, so as not to compromise its apparent objectivity. By contrast, many social scientists contend openly that value-based judgments, based on “situated knowledge,” can actually enhance the rigor, accountability, and credibility of scientific assessments. LCA practitioners’ own situated knowledge justifies not only the value choices required by LCA but also their evaluative judgments of contemporary life cycle-based sustainability initiatives. This more critical voice could advance the goals of LCM while also boosting the credibility of LCA more generally.

Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of thermal insulation materials of buildings

Insulation is a relevant technical solution for cutting energy consumption in buildings. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the environmental impacts and the consumption of renewable and non-renewable primary energy on the production of conventional thermal insulation materials: extruded and expanded polystyrene, polyurethane, expanded cork agglomerate and expanded clay lightweight aggregates. The comparison per functional unit of the innovative and up-to-date environmental performance of expanded cork and clay with the most common insulation materials used in Europe (the remaining three), and for the environmental categories and life-cycle stages defined in recent European standards, is presented for the first time. These results have been based on site-specific data from companies whose quality was fully characterised, and achieved through a consistent methodology that is fully described, including the modelling of energy processes and a sensitivity analysis of the allocation procedures. These “cradle to gate” results are scientifically sound since they were achieved by following the International standards for Life Cycle Assessment and recent European standards on the environmental evaluation of buildings.