Life Cycle Assessment Of Production Research Articles

Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Products in Vietnam

Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Products in Vietnam

Assessing the Negative Impact of Palm Oil Industry in Malaysia through a Systemic Method

This research paper studies the life cycle assessment of palm oil production and the impact on the environment due to palm oil production. A life cycle assessment includes a life cycle inventory and a life cycle impact assessment. The life cycle inventory accounts for all the parameters of the milling process of palm oil production, such as kernels, shells, etc. The life cycle impact assessment includes all the impacts on the environment and human health, such as global warming, ecotoxicity, radiation, the ozone layer, and more. This research paper will also include the opportunity to overcome the impacts due to palm oil production.

Exergetic life cycle assessment for green hydrogen production

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method for assessing the environmental impacts of products and processes. The life cycle inventory provides a measure of the quantitative throughput of a process, but it cannot measure the intrinsic quality of that throughput. Exergy is a measure of the quantity and quality of energy. When combining LCA and exergy analysis in an exergy-based life cycle assessment (ExLCA) a powerful tool for the quantification of resource efficiency can be established. This study performs a detailed bottom-up cradle-to-grave ExLCA based on cumulative exergy consumption and exergy analysis of the use phase for a state-of-the-art (SoA) and a future plant 5 MW proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer plant. Three scenarios are implemented, i.e. SoA plant operated in the German grid mix of 2018, SoA plant operated in a defossilized grid, and a future plant operated in a defossilized grid. In every scenario, more than 98 % of the resource demand originates from electricity generation alone and decreases significantly with renewable electricity operation. In plant construction, the anode catalyst material iridium causes approximately half of the resource demand and bears the largest lever for the resource reduction potential of the plant construction of 65 %.

Social life cycle assessment of garments production using the psychosocial risk factors impact pathway

This study presents the application of a Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) methodology to two Italian case studies, allowing to estimate the possible impacts of the production of two garments “A” and “B”. The hours of exposure to health risks have been accounted for the workers since they are the stakeholder group most immediately impacted. They have been analysed through the Psychosocial Risk Factors (PRF) impact pathway, a type II Social Life Cycle Assessment that allows the quantification of hours of exposure per each phase of the product or service life cycle. Using questionnaire, technical data have been gathered and all productive phases quantified and qualified in terms of duration (hours) and working conditions (ergonomics, exposures, postures, etc.). A literature review has been conducted to find relationships between these working conditions with health problems through odds ratios, a statistical measure of association between variables commonly used in retrospective studies. The functional unit chosen is one garment, and the system boundary is from cradle to firm gate; however, due to the lack of specific information concerning the upstream processes, impacts about inputs supplied from external providers were only qualified, but not quantified (background data). In both case studies, the highest psychosocial risk is linked to musculoskeletal disorders (Low back pain and neck and shoulder pain) and visual fatigue and discomfort. These results are due principally to the postures needed during work, the concentration required, repetitive movements, static and dynamic loads, as well as the use of video monitors during some tasks (especially planning and CAD modelling). Apparently, the process of product “B” is more socially impacting than “A”. Actually, this is due because of the internalization of some operations such as (part of) the fabric production and the dyeing processes, which can expose workers to hazardous chemicals and dusts, and the use of trichloroethylene for stain removal. These working conditions, indeed, expose workers to a higher risk of cancers, according to scientific literature. To reduce risks, it is suggested to avoid the use of bleach and trichloroethylene for cleaning, to reduce the exposure to textile dusts (for example with the use of vacuums or masks), to avoid skin contact with the azo dyes and azo pigments, by using protective individual dispositive such as gloves, long-sleeved shirts, and aprons. To improve the ergonomics workplace, it is recommended to take more breaks during the timework, ensure the firmness of chairs and add lumbar support, as well as control the height of chairs and worktops. Promoting employees’ physical activity would be useful to prevent musculoskeletal disorders.

Life cycle assessment of synthetic natural gas production from captured cement’s CO2 and green H2

Research on the environmental benefits of carbon capture and utilization (CCU) in cement production so far, has predominantly emphasized energy efficiency enhancements and CO2 emission reductions at a CCU product level, neglecting broader environmental consequences for the sector. This research broadens this perspective by providing an extensive life cycle assessment (LCA) of a circular Portland cement (CPC) model. Synthesized methane is used as input fuel through green hydrogen and calcium-looping (CaL) post-combustion captured CO2 from cement flue gas. Comparative analysis with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) reveals significant reductions in climate change and fossil resource use environmental impact categories. However, trade-offs are evident in acidification, water use, and minerals and metals resource consumption. The electrolysis system is a critical contributor due to the high electricity demand for hydrogen production, and its environmental impact depends largely on the renewable electricity source. The wind-based electrolysis model yields the most favourable results, followed by mixed (50% solar – 50% wind) and solar scenarios. These findings offer valuable insights for the cement industry, supporting stakeholders decision making on the adoption of sustainable circular production methods.

Social hotspots in the automotive industry’s aluminum value chains—combining primary and generic data

Abstract Purpose The automotive industry and its suppliers have been facing increasing challenges in the sustainable sourcing of raw materials on environmental and social levels. To identify social risks in the value chain of aluminum in the automotive sector, this study aimed to examine how a generic hotspot analysis based on S-LCA can be conducted and support the reporting according to new legislative requirements such as the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence Obligations in Supply Chains. Methods This study investigated the social risks in the supply chains of two selected aluminum components of an aluminum company using a generic social hotspot analysis based on the UNEP Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products and Organizations 2020. The study employed the generic PSILCA© database and different additional indicators for the assessment. The UNEP Guidelines 2020 used in combination with the associated methodological sheets were beneficial in structuring the procedure within the social hotspot analysis. They gave the inexperienced user a guide, which led to the results presented in this work. Results and discussion A high number of social hotspots in upstream processes outside Europe across the different investigated indicators for both supply chains assessed were detected. Most social risks were identified in Guinea, as well as in a European and an Asian Country in the stakeholder categories “Workers” and “Local community.” Especially, the alloy element production in the Asian Country and the bauxite mining in Guinea showed an above-average number of social hotspots. The implementation of the work was associated with an enormous effort in information collection about the supply chains to be investigated and depended on the direct suppliers’ willingness to contribute. The need for a safe and supporting environment for suppliers to enhance transparency was identified. Conclusions Combining generic and company data to conduct a social hotspot assessment (e.g., using PSILCA©) to meet legislative requirements proved to be a suitable approach for complex supply chains such as the automotive one. Despite this, limitations of the PSILCA© database and potential for improvement were acknowledged regarding industry-wide social assessments of supply chains. Additionally, the study serves as an application example of the UNEP Guidelines 2020 and the activity variables for science in practice. Further development and standardization of social indicators and activity variables for impact measurement were identified as a research priority.

How to Measure the Greenness of Chemicals? A Case Study on Butadiene Production Applying Green Metrics and Life Cycle Assessment

AbstractThe greenness of naphtha‐ and bioethanol‐based butadiene was compared using green metrics (GM) and life cycle assessment (LCA). GM provide predominantly qualitative results, showing advantages for bioethanol‐based butadiene. LCA indicates benefits of bioethanol‐based butadiene in terms of global warming and fossil resource consumption, but drawbacks in acidification, eutrophication, radiation, land use, ozone depletion, particulate matter, ozone formation, metal depletion, and freshwater consumption. When comparing both assessment approaches used, LCA offers a more comprehensive environmental assessment while GM is limited to a smaller section of the value chain but address additional aspects such as safety of chemicals.

Ammonia production from microalgal biosystem: Present scenario, cultivation systems, production technologies, and way forward

Recent advancements in renewable energy technologies have increased the demand for ammonia production from a variety of biomasses due to biomass’s abundant availability. Many types of biomass are used to generate biofuels by thermochemical and biochemical methods. These include residues from farming and forests, municipal solid waste, energy crops, food processing residues, industrial organic effluents, and algae. Microalgae, among the biomasses, are a valuable resource for ammonia and hydrogen production because they have a higher biomass production rate than others. It is possible to use steam gasification, pyrolysis, catalytic pyrolysis, and steam catalytic gasification to move nitrogen from algal biomass to NH3. However, intensive investigation is required in new directions to develop a mature and cost-effective technology. This article closely examines the current production of ammonia and the feasibility of utilizing algal biomass for the production of hydrogen and ammonia through various biochemical and thermochemical routes. The study comprehensively addressed the characteristics of ammonia and the current status of its production across multiple countries. The subsequent section discusses the cultivation systems and life cycle assessment of algal biomass production for fuels. Furthermore, the ammonia/hydrogen production methods utilizing algal biomass are also listed and discussed.

Considering product life cycle characteristics and industry background in environmental impact analysis and application: a case study of a television.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is widely used to evaluate product's life cycle environmental impact and identify the environmental weaknesses. However, it is difficult for existing LCA software to perform flexible LCA analysis based on the product life cycle characteristics and industry background. Meanwhile, under the existing LCA research model, product designers and manufacturers are usually not LCA evaluators, resulting in a certain time gap between the evaluation results and product improvement. Designers with less experience in green design often find it difficult to identify high environmental impact links in products at different life cycle stages and product levels, and updated products are challenging to meet various environmental restrictions. This paper establishes a multi-module product life cycle analysis model that combines product industry background that includes basic information, assessment information, structural information, and restriction information to achieve the multi-scenario of product LCA in different dimensions in a typical domain. The calculated mechanism of the dynamic power emission factor is built according to the service time and space dimensions. The proposed method forms an integrated environmental performance evaluation of household appliance (EPEHA) system. A software assessment and an optimization method are proposed to improve the EPEHA system. The results of this study show that these proposed methods can improve the timeliness and diversity of results analysis of product LCA in the field of household appliances in China. The universal data exchange format and simple operation interface of the EPEHA system enable people related to the product to quickly understand the environmental impact of the product in different scenarios, even if they lack green design knowledge and professional software training.

Life cycle assessment and product carbon footprint for SHG zinc production

The industry’s environmental impact has moved into focus at global level. Regulators, supply chains, and the financial sector need credible, standardized, and transparent information for multiple reasons. These include regulatory targets for limiting emissions, downstream user optimizations, and developing science-based emission reduction strategies. By characterizing environmental impacts, companies can satisfy stakeholder demands and measure progress towards goals. In this paper, an introduction to life cycle assessment (LCA) for reporting on environmental impacts, including the product carbon footprint as global warming potential is given. Average results from the most recent global LCA update for special high-grade zinc production are summarized. Resulting carbon footprint information is then used to derive the zinc industry’s baseline carbon footprint as the starting point for the decarbonization roadmap for the global zinc industry.

A life cycle assessment of clinker and cement production in Ethiopia

Cement production is a major consumer of energy and the largest source of industrial CO2 emissions. This study aims to perform an environmental life cycle assessment of clinker and cement production in Ethiopia, using ReCiPe impact assessment method. Inventory data (material, energy, and transportation) is collected from seven major Ethiopian cement industries. The midpoint analysis identified nine hotspot environmental concerns: global warming, ozone formation (human health and terrestrial ecosystem), particulate matter formation, terrestrial (acidification and ecotoxicity), freshwater eutrophication, human carcinogenic toxicity, and fossil resource scarcity. Human health emerged as the most significantly affected endpoint damage category by the midpoint impacts. Among the process stages included in clinker system boundary, clinker production phase (kiln emissions) is a significant contributor to the total score of the hotspot impacts, ranging from 60.7% to 91.8%. The clinker system is responsible for over 81.03% of the overall environmental burden of cement. The sensitivity analysis reveals that a 5% change in kiln energy consumption and transportation burden could lead to a reduction in hotspot impacts ranging from 1.8% to 5%. To foster reliability of this study, uncertainty analysis is also conducted. Overall, the findings indicate the need to enhance environmental sustainability in Ethiopian cement production.

Social life cycle assessment of the olive oil industry: a case study in Guilan Province, Iran

AbstractOlive oil production has severe environmental consequences, including resource depletion, land degradation, carbon emissions, and waste generation. As a result, for over two decades, environmental life cycle assessment (ELCA) has been applied to the olive oil industry to identify environmental issues and reduce the environmental effects. However, little is known regarding the social sustainability of this industry. Social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) has been established as one of the most effective methodologies for assessing the social implications of products throughout their life cycles. Accordingly, based on the S-LCA approach, this study aims to assess the social impacts of the olive oil extraction industry in Roudbar County in Guilan Province in Iran, the major producer of olives and olive oil. The S-LCA model adopted in this paper is built in four major phases (UNEP/SETAC in Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products, 2009): (1) Definition of Goal and Scope: outlines the intended use and the goal pursued and specifies the scope of the research. The research will then be defined to fulfill that purpose within any constraints. (2) Life Cycle Inventory analysis: is the phase at which data are collected, systems are modeled, and LCI results are generated. (3) Life Cycle Impact Assessment: a collection of steps to obtain data categorization, aggregation, and characterization based on performance reference points. (4) Life Cycle Interpretation: considers all important aspects of the research when drawing results, offering recommendations, and reporting. The findings suggested that the social conditions governing the olive oil extraction cycle in the study area are almost adequate. However, other categories of social impacts, such as cultural heritage, community development, and working conditions, were rated unsatisfactory by olive orchard workers and need improvement. Adopting the cause-and-effect chain in this study favors identifying specific indicators based on social issues in the study location. On the other hand, a scale-based assessment may result in the subjectivity of the results, which adds to the uncertainty. An impact-based assessment may be applied to analyze social impacts such as occupational health and safety, employment, pay, and benefits to get more credible social impact data. Consequently, integrating the scale-based approach with an efficient path-based method may improve its effectiveness.

Life cycle and techno-economic assessment of bioresource production from wastewater

Thermochemical conversion technologies present an opportunity to flip the paradigm of wastewater biosolids management operations from energy-intense and expensive waste management processes into energy-positive and economical resource extraction centers. Herein, we present a uniform “grading framework” to consistently evaluate the environmental and commercial benefits of established and emerging wastewater biosolids management processes from a life cycle and techno-economic perspective. Application of this approach reveals that established wastewater biosolids management practices such as landfilling, land application, incineration, and anaerobic digestion, while commercially viable, offer little environmental benefit. On the other hand, emerging thermochemical bioresource recovery technologies such as hydrothermal liquefaction, gasification, pyrolysis, and torrefaction show potential to provide substantial economic and environmental benefit through the recovery of carbon and nutrients from wastewater biosolids in the form of biofuels, fertilizers, and other high-value products. Some emerging thermochemical technologies have developed beyond pilot scale although their commercial viability remains to be seen.

Life cycle assessment of single cell protein production–A review of current technologies and emerging challenges

Population growth trend will have a significant impact on the availability of food resources, leading to a surge in the development of various protein concentrates, including Single Cell Protein (SCP), which is derived from the biomass of unicellular organisms. The objective of this review is to analyze the application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) on SCP production, assessing the influence of the technologies on environmental outcomes and the challenges linked to LCA methodological choices. The articles included in the review were classified according to their LCA goal, distinguishing between those focused on the production of SCP for consumption, for feed valorization, for wastewater treatment and for conventional foods substitution in meals. Generally, most systems comprised three stages: feedstock production and pre-treatment, fermentation, and post-treatment, and in some cases, integration of SCP into the final product. The analysis revealed that the type of substrate has a great influence on the environmental profile of the product, as well as its pre-treatment. Electricity was also identified as the main hotspot in virtually all systems, being the most studied parameter in sensitivity analyses. Regarding the definition of LCA parameters, a lack of consensus on the description of system boundaries in the use of organic waste as substrate for SCP production is notable, leading to confusion about the actual associated impacts. Likewise, the study of the environmental performance of SCP based on its amino acid content and nutritional quality is one of the main challenges that would contribute to better evaluating its environmental behavior compared to other types of protein of vegetal and animal origin.

Integrating aerosol emissions of forest biomass into a life cycle assessment of forest-based production

Climate change mitigation is globally increasing the demand for forest biomass to substitute for fossil-based materials. Consequently, fossil-based greenhouse gas emissions will decrease, but simultaneously, aerosol emissions may substantially change. The evaluation of the substitution effects of forest-based materials may be biased if aerosol emissions are not considered. We integrated aerosol emissions from the use of forest-based biomass and fossil-based materials into a life cycle assessment (LCA) tool and simulated the biomass production of Norway spruce under alternative harvest intensities of energy biomass in middle boreal conditions in Finland. For the forest management regimes, we calculated particulate matter (PM) emissions; i.e. total suspended particles (TSP), respirable particulate matter (PM10), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC), and gaseous emissions including nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC). We also considered how replacing fossil counterparts and peat with forest-based biomass energy affects aerosol emissions. The differences between the management regimes were minor for sawn logs and pulpwood. Energy biomass use, especially combustion in small-scale appliances, increased aerosol emissions. Energy biomass use produced higher PM (TSP, PM10, PM2.5, BC) emissions than the use of coal and peat as energy. Regarding construction materials, the highest aerosol emissions were found for sawn wood production, followed by steel production. Cardboard production emitted remarkably higher aerosol emissions than high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic production. The inclusion of aerosol emissions of forest biomass use seems to be important for assessing the climate and health effects of the transition to a forest bioeconomy.

Life cycle inventory and assessment of Canadian faba bean and dry bean production

Pulses are nutritionally beneficial and cost-effective food/feed products, and are also nitrogen-fixing crops that can improve the environmental sustainability of annual cropping systems when included in crop rotations – particularly with respect to GHG emissions. Canada is a major producer and exporter of pulses, therefore the goals of this study were to (a) develop regionalized life cycle inventories (LCIs) for Canadian faba and dry beans suitable for incorporation into public LCI databases and (b) conduct ISO 14044-compliant LCAs of Canadian faba, navy, pinto, and kidney beans at provincial, ecozone, and national scales. LCI data were collected via survey from ~200 Canadian faba and dry bean farmers.At the national scale of aggregation, faba beans had considerably lower impacts across all impact categories considered than the three dry bean types. This is due to their lower input requirements (particularly fertilizer), and higher nitrogen fixation capabilities. Among the three dry bean types considered, pinto beans had the lowest environmental impacts across most impact categories. Fertilizer production and field-level emissions from fertilizer use were the major contributors to the overall environmental impacts of the production of all bean types. In addition to differences between bean types, there were also differences within bean types, between regions of production and levels of regional aggregation. The results of the uncertainty analysis revealed that variability was lowest when aggregated at the ecozone level, based on soil and climate factors, and highest when aggregated to the national average. Taken together, these results demonstrate the utility of spatially-resolved LCI and LCA modelling that distinguishes between different types of pulse crops in order to accurately estimate impacts, and to support decision-making in pursuit of more sustainable food systems. Future research needs include more primary data on field-level biological nitrogen fixation and soil carbon fluxes, since these can significantly influence estimated environmental impacts.

Life cycle assessment of n-caproic acid production via chain elongation from food waste: Comparison of shunting and staged technology

n-Caproic acid is a widely used biochemical that can be produced from organic waste through chain elongation technology. This study aims to evaluate the environmental impacts of n-caproic acid production through chain elongation by two processes (i.e., shunting and staged technology). The Open-life cycle assessment (LCA) model was used to calculate the environmental impacts of both technologies based on experimental data. Results showed that the shunting technology had higher environmental impacts than the staged technology. Water and electricity made bigger contribution to the environmental impacts of both technologies. Reusing chain elongation effluent substituting for water and using electricity produced by wind power could reduce the environmental impacts of water and electricity effectively. Using ethanol from food waste had higher global warming potential than fossil ethanol, which suggested that a cradle-to-grave LCA is needed to be carried out for specific raw materials and chain elongation products in the future.

When solid recovered fuel (SRF) production and consumption maximize environmental benefits? A life cycle assessment

Solid recovered fuel (SRF) from non-recyclable waste obtained from source separation and mechanical treatments can replace carbon coke in cement plants, contributing to the carbon neutrality. A life cycle assessment (LCA) of the SRF production from non-recyclable and selected waste was conducted in an Italian mechanical treatment plant to estimate the potential environmental impacts per ton of SRF produced. The analysis would contribute to evaluate the benefits that can be obtained due to coke substitution in best- and worst-case scenarios. The avoided impacts achieved were assessed, together with an evaluation of the variables that can affect the environmental benefits: SRF biogenic carbon content (in percentage of paper and cardboard); transportation distances travelled from the treatment plant to the cement kiln; the renewable energy used in the mechanical facility. On average, about 35.6 kgCO2-eq are generated by the SRF transportation and production phase. These impacts are greatly compensated by coke substitution, obtaining a net value of about −1.1 tCO2-eq avoided per ton of SRF. On balance, the global warming potential due to SRF production and consumption ranges from about −542 kgCO2-eq to about −1729 kgCO2-eq. The research recommended the use of SRF to substitute coke in cement kilns also in low densely-populated areas to mitigate environmental impacts and achieve carbon neutrality at a global level.

Research on Life Cycle Assessment and Performance Comparison of Bioethanol Production from Various Biomass Feedstocks

Bioethanol, as a renewable energy source, has been widely used in the energy sector, particularly in replacing traditional petroleum energy, and holds great potential. This study involves a whole life cycle assessment of bioethanol production and the co-production of high-value by-products—xylose, lignin, and steam—using three types of waste biomass: corn cobs, corn straw, and wheat straw as feedstocks by chopping, pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation methods. Secondly, the benefits of three raw materials are compared for preparing bioethanol, and their impact on the environment and energy production is analyzed. The comparison indicates that corn cobs offer the best overall benefits, with a net energy balance (NEB) of 6902 MJ/Mg of ethanol and a net energy ratio (NER) of 1.30. The global warming potential (GWP) is 1.75 × 10−2, acidification potential (AP) is 1.02 × 10−2, eutrophication potential (EP) is 2.63 × 10−4, photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) is 3.19 × 10−8, and human toxicity potential (HTP) is 1.52 × 10−4. This paper can provide a theoretical reference and data supporting the green refining of bioethanol and the high-value utilization of by-products, and broaden its application prospects.

Life cycle assessment of instant coffee production considering different energy sources

Nowadays, coffee is a popular beverage globally and one of the largest traded commodities. Conventional instant coffee production requires energy and water, producing coffee bagasse (biomass) as an agro-industrial residue. This residue, spent coffee grounds (SCGs), in Ecuador is currently disposed of in the municipal landfills, losing the opportunity to recover energy and minerals. This paper studies the life cycle environmental impacts of instant coffee production using data from a coffee plant in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The study analyzes the impact of generating the required electricity by an internal combustion engine powered by fossil fuel, using the Ecuadorian power grid, or using a combined cooling, heat, and power (CCHP) trigeneration system powered by dried SCGs and natural gas. The results indicate that when SCGs is used to power auxiliary processes, the CO2 emissions greatly decrease, helping to reduce fossil fuel dependence. The study also reveals that scenarios using electricity from the Ecuadorian power grid exhibit lower environmental indicators than those using internal combustion engines. The scenario that includes the CCHP records the lowest indicator in each category, reducing the GWP by 45.2 % compared to the base scenario, pointing out that using energy-efficient technologies lowers the carbon footprint, contributing to decarbonisation simultaneously.