Life Cycle Assessment Of Production Research Articles

Life Cycle Assessment of Microalgae-Based Products for Carbon Dioxide Utilization in Thailand: Biofertilizer, Fish Feed, and Biodiesel

Background Microalgae-based products offer a sustainable solution for food, fuel, and agricultural inputs, presenting environmental benefits and economic opportunities. A comprehensive assessment is needed to understand their potential in supporting sustainability goals, considering the complex interplay between production methods, energy sources, and environmental impacts. Methods This study evaluated the environmental impacts of three microalgae-derived products – biodiesel, fish feed, and biofertilizer – through a comprehensive life cycle assessment. Nine scenarios were explored comparing three electricity profiles (current Thai mix, 50% renewable/50% current mix hybrid, 100% renewable) across the three products. The assessment evaluated environmental impacts and potential economic benefits of transitioning to these microalgae-based alternatives. Results and discussion All products demonstrated potential for significant environmental benefits under increased renewable energy scenarios. Fish feed consistently exhibited the lowest environmental impacts across all categories examined, showing substantial improvements with increased renewable energy use. With an annual demand of 0.4 million tonnes, fish feed could generate USD 560 million in revenue and reduce CO2 emissions by 1.1 million tonnes. Fulfilling the projected biodiesel demand of 4,015 million liters per year through microalgae production could yield approximately USD 3.5 billion in revenue and reduce CO2 emissions by 30 million tonnes compared to conventional fossil-based diesel. Additionally, algal biofertilizer production could meet a 5 million tonnes annual demand, offering USD 2 billion in revenue while reducing CO2 emissions by 6 million tonnes yearly. Collectively, these products could offset 37 million tonnes of CO2, representing about 14% of Thailand’s total CO2 emissions, contributing significantly to the country’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target of 20-30% greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Conclusion Transitioning to microalgae-based products could transform the aquaculture, energy, and agricultural sectors, potentially supporting the national climate change mitigation goals, if implemented.

Environmental life cycle assessment of lettuce production in a container-based vertical farm

Environmental life cycle assessment of lettuce production in a container-based vertical farm

Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production using a nonionic surfactant and CaO from eggshell as a catalyst

ABSTRACT Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool used to evaluate the environmental impacts and resources used to manufacture a product. The present study proposes an innovative and unprecedented based on LCA of biodiesel production from the methyl transesterification of soybean oil catalyzed by eggshell-derived CaO and using the nonionic surfactant nonylphenol ethoxylate (NP6EO). Biodiesel was produced under mild conditions with a 1:4 methanol-to-oil ratio, 2 wt% CaO, 1 wt% NP6EO, and reaction times of 2 hours with surfactant and 3 hours without, with a yield of 95.18% and 97.75%, respectively. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was performed using the SimaPro software and the Ecoinvent 3.6 database by implementing the CML-IA baseline method. Results indicated that the catalyst preparation process had the lowest environmental impact, while soybean oil used contributed the most across all impact categories. The surfactant-based process was 77% more eco-efficient than the non-surfactant process. Results also showed that surfactant concentration has more influence on impacts than additional electricity consumption due to a longer reaction time. Compared to traditional KOH-catalyzed biodiesel production, the use of CaO from eggshells and NP6EO demonstrated a lower environmental impact, suggesting this method is a promising alternative to conventional processes.

Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from broken wheat and rice grains

Ethanol from broken grains will contribute to India’s fuel mix, therefore, the environmental impacts must be systematically quantified. This work performs a detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) of ethanol production from broken wheat and rice in the Indian context. Cradle-to-gate system boundary is considered, and the functional unit is 1 L ethanol. Process inventory is based on literature studies and basic process engineering calculations. Ecoinvent® v3.3 database is also used to get required inventory data. OpenLCA 1.11.0 software and the ReCiPe midpoint (H) model are used for the calculations. A key conclusion is that ethanol from broken grains has substantially lower global warming potential (GWP) (0.536–0.983 kg CO2 eq.) as compared to other fuels. Ethanol from rice has higher GWP and water depletion than that from wheat. The results also show the impacts are dominated by the farming stage. About 98% of water depletion was due to the agricultural stage for both grains. The other import impact factors are fossil depletion, human toxicity, metal depletion, marine eutrophication, and terrestrial acidification. The main driving factors for these are the depletion of coal, natural gas, and crude oil and by the emissions in the form of methane, mercury, manganese, and other metals.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of the industrial production of structural glued laminated bamboo

Bamboo is a promising bio-based construction material for achieving China’s carbon neutrality goal. This study developed methodological approaches for life cycle assessment (cradle to gate) of structural glued laminated bamboo (SGLB) produced from moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), including measuring and calculating biogenic carbon storage and emissions during the manufacturing process. Primary data was collected through experiments and field investigation resulting in development of world’s first life cycle inventory (LCI) of SGLB; background data from Ecoinvent 3.10 was used, and the analysis was performed using OpenLCA 2.1: IPCC 2021 method AR6. Uncertainty analysis was conducted using Monte Carlo Simulation. The results illustrate that SGLB can store 1140 kgCO2e/m3, which is more than twice biogenic CO2 emitted (467 ± 9.1 kgCO2e/m3) during its production. Electricity, adhesive, and transportation are the top three emission sources, among which electricity contributed to 71% of the final emission and was mainly consumed at the fine-planed bamboo strip processing factories. The production process generates around 60% of bamboo co-products, which can be effectively used for heat and power co-generation that can drastically reduce the carbon emissions to 156 kgCO2e/m3. In addition, maximal use of sea transportation between factory gate and consumer can further mitigate carbon emission. Further research on the end-of-life scenarios of SGLB in structures, and research on SGLB produced from other bamboo species in Africa, Latin America, and Southeastern Asia need to be undertaken.

Social life cycle sustainability assessment of dried tomato products based on material and process selection through multi-criteria decision making.

Tomatoes are a significant product of the Mediterranean region and a crucial component of the Mediterranean diet. The formulation of dried tomato products enriched with proteins and bioactive compounds could be a strategic approach to promote adherence to the Mediterranean diet. Six different novel tomato products were analyzed using different protein enrichment sources (pea proteins and leaf proteins) and drying technologies (hot-air dryer, microwave vacuum dryer, and conventional dryer). The novelty of this approach lies in combining product-specific criteria with global societal factors across their life cycles. Using 21 criteria and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) survey of experts, the social sustainability score for each product was determined through a multi-criteria assessment. The tomato product's life cycles have minimal regional impacts on unemployment, access to drinking water, sanitation, or excessive working hours. However, they affect discrimination, migrant labor, children's education, and access to hospital beds significantly. The study identified nutritional quality as the top criterion, with the most sustainable design being a tomato bar enriched with pea protein and processed using microwave vacuum drying. The study revealed that integrating sensory and nutrient compounds into social sustainability assessments improves food sustainability and provides a practical roadmap for social life cycle assessments of food products. It emphasized the importance of considering global social issues when reformulating Mediterranean products to ensure long-term adherence to the Mediterranean diet. Incorporating social factors into sustainability scores can also enhance the effectiveness of product information for conscious customers. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Municipal Waste Treatment: Climate Change Mitigation Impacts and Carbon Credit Market Effects

Objective: Analyze the feasibility of proposing a comprehensive methodology for inventorying greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from urban waste, with the goal of enhancing the attractiveness of carbon credits and demonstrating their impacts on climate mitigation. Theoretical Framework: The research is grounded in theories related to climate change, the circular economy, and urban waste management. Global warming is discussed through the works of authors such as David Wallace-Wells and José Goldemberg, alongside concepts from the GHG Protocol and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Method: The methodology involves a bibliographic review, document analysis, and exploratory research using secondary and qualitative data. Scientific articles and documents from organizations such as the IPCC and EMBRAPA, among other academic sources, were utilized. Results and Discussion: The research emphasizes that proper management of urban waste, aligned with the principles of the circular economy, can substantially reduce GHG emissions. "Zero Waste" projects are analyzed as viable alternatives for mitigating emissions and obtaining carbon credits. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of products is identified as crucial for inventorying emissions across various stages of the life cycle, thereby facilitating the certification process for carbon credits. Research Implications: The proposed methodology can encourage new investments in recycling and waste reuse, as well as support the establishment of waste treatment units that maximize resource recovery and minimize environmental impacts.Originality: This study contributes to the literature by presenting an innovative approach to the management of urban waste and carbon credits, highlighting the importance of LCA in certifying reduced emissions. Originality: This study contributes to the existing literature by introducing an innovative approach to urban waste management and carbon credits, underscoring the importance of LCA in the certification of reduced emissions.

Life cycle assessment of metal powder production: a Bayesian stochastic Kriging model-based autonomous estimation

Metal powder contributes to the environmental burdens of additive manufacturing (AM) substantially. Current life cycle assessments (LCAs) of metal powders present considerable variations of lifecycle environmental inventory due to process divergence, spatial heterogeneity, or temporal fluctuation. Most importantly, the amounts of LCA studies on metal powder are limited and primarily confined to partial material types. To this end, based on the data surveyed from a metal powder supplier, this study conducted an LCA of titanium and nickel alloy produced by electrode-inducted and vacuum-inducted melting gas atomization, respectively. Given that energy consumption dominates the environmental burden of powder production and is influenced by metal materials’ physical properties, we proposed a Bayesian stochastic Kriging model to estimate the energy consumption during the gas atomization process. This model considered the inherent uncertainties of training data and adaptively updated the parameters of interest when new environmental data on gas atomization were available. With the predicted energy use information of specific powder, the corresponding lifecycle environmental impacts can be further autonomously estimated in conjunction with the other surveyed powder production stages. Results indicated the environmental impact of titanium alloy powder is slightly higher than that of nickel alloy powder and their lifecycle carbon emissions are around 20 kg CO2 equivalency. The proposed Bayesian stochastic Kriging model showed more accurate predictions of energy consumption compared with conventional Kriging and stochastic Kriging models. This study enables data imputation of energy consumption during gas atomization given the physical properties and producing technique of powder materials.

Social Life Cycle Assessment of Cocoa Production: Evidence from Ivory Coast and Ghana

Cocoa is a natural resource that plays a very important role globally, being one of the most produced and traded commodities. As a labour-intensive product and considering that its cultivation involves about 50 million people globally, it seems significant to explore its social sustainability. In light of this, this research aimed to map social risks within the cocoa supply chain from a life cycle perspective. Therefore, the Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) was used, following the PSILCA database, considering the two most influential countries in its production, i.e., Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. The results showed that there could be a very high risk that more than half of the cocoa globally is produced through child labour and with wages too low to guarantee workers a decent living, returning incomes of $30–38/month. Forced labour is much less frequent than child labour, while cocoa from Ghana may induce a high risk of improper work, considering the 30.2 h per week worked by farmers. This is mainly due to the low association power of 10–16%, which reveals a high risk that workers may not organise themselves into trade unions. Finally, at 23–25%, there is also a very high risk of discrimination due to the high presence of migrant labour. Therefore, the S-LCA results showed that the cocoa industry is still characterised by socially unsustainable sourcing.

A socio-economic assessment of an emerging technology in the mining industry

Abstract Purpose This article provides methodological insights to evaluate the socio-economic risk of an emerging froth flotation technology for the mining sector with the goal of guiding the design and development process. This technology is used to separate valuable particles based on surface properties among minerals and, if properly developed, could be used to valorize fine particles that currently existing technology cannot separate and thus become waste material. Methods The Social Hotspot assessment utilized the Product Social Impact Life Cycle Assessment (PSILCA) database to analyze social hotspots in the relevant industrial sector. In addition, a survey captured the viewpoints of technology developers regarding additional potential social risk and opportunities. The final results were defined by combining these two analyses, conducted according to the 2020 UNEP guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products and Organizations. For the economic assessment, the Material Flow Cost Accounting (MFCA) methodology (ISO14051) was applied, considering material costs, system costs, energy costs, and waste management costs for both the current situation and a future industrial-scale scenario. Results and discussion The study emphasizes the importance of tailoring methodological approaches for case studies involving low Technology Readiness Level (TRL) technologies based on available data. The state of technology development has led to different results for the economic and social analyses, primarily due to the difficulty in accurately predicting potential social impacts at this stage. The social analysis identified potential risks and 28 subcategories of impacts across different stakeholder categories. The economic assessment found that energy costs (49%) were the highest contributor to the MFCA cost of the future scenario, followed by system costs (29%). Conclusions and recommendations The study concludes that conducting a socio-economic analysis during the developmental stage of a technology is valuable for identifying critical hotspots that require monitoring, effectively guiding the research and development phase. This application represents a unique case in the mining sector and could be a first step in defining a methodological approach suitable for low TRL technologies. Analyzing both social and economic risks provides a more comprehensive perspective on sustainability, complementing environmental risk assessments.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint of Typical Hydrogen Energy Products

To compare the environmental impact and carbon footprint of gray hydrogen, blue hydrogen, and green hydrogen, inventories were obtained through literature research. Some inventories that were not available in China were obtained through foreign inventories combined with localized power conversion. The localized end-point destructive life cycle impact assessment method was used to calculate the environmental impact potential of the raw material acquisition, transportation, and hydrogen production stages of five hydrogen products. The carbon footprint was calculated, and the sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis were carried out and compared with the ReCiPe method. The results showed that： ① The environmental impact from large to small was： gray hydrogen （coal） （1 203 mPt·kg-1） > blue hydrogen （coal） （876 mPt·kg-1） > gray hydrogen （gas） （492 mPt·kg-1） > green hydrogen （323 mPt·kg-1） > blue hydrogen （gas） （252 mPt·kg-1）. The environmental impacts of gray hydrogen and blue hydrogen were mainly concentrated in climate change, fine particulate matter formation, and fossil fuels. The environmental impacts of green hydrogen were mainly concentrated in climate change, fine particulate matter formation, fossil fuels, and mineral resources. ② The carbon footprint from large to small was： gray hydrogen （coal） （23.79 kg·kg-1, measured by CO2eq, the same below） > blue hydrogen （coal） （11.07 kg·kg-1） > gray hydrogen （gas） （10.97 kg·kg-1） > blue hydrogen （gas） （3.47 kg·kg-1） > green hydrogen （1.97 kg·kg-1）. Direct carbon emissions in the production process of gray hydrogen and blue hydrogen accounted for the largest proportion, whereas that of green hydrogen accounted for a large proportion of power input. ③ Measures to reduce environmental impact and carbon emissions include reducing direct emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases, reducing power consumption, and strengthening raw material substitution and reduction.

Life Cycle Assessment of Blended Cement Product: A Case Study

Abstract Large-scale cement production has led to serious environmental issues since the process is energy and resource intensive. Moreover, the cement industry is one of the sources of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. As a matter of fact, in the Philippines, the CO2 emission increased by 88.23% in over a decade. Hence, this research conducted a life cycle assessment of blended cement products in a cement manufacturing facility in Bulacan, Philippines from cradle to gate. The research utilized functional units of one metric ton of clinker, and one metric ton of blended cement. For the life cycle assessment (LCA), SimaPro 9.3.0.3 software was employed, and the impact assessment was conducted using the IPCC 2021 Global Warming Potential (GWP) at a 100-year timeframe and the Cumulative Energy Demand Method. Results of the research showed that the baseline carbon footprint and cumulative energy demand for the clinker are 995 kg CO2-eqv and 4.74 x 103 MJ, respectively. Also, the baseline carbon footprint and cumulative energy demand for the blended cement are 760 kg CO2-eqv and 4.13 x 103 MJ, respectively. Further, the evaluation of the carbon footprint of clinker, and blended cement in this research is comparable with the results from similar studies, with slight variation on certain instances. The energy utilization in the production of clinker, and blended cement in this research is significantly lower than the result of other studies

One-step microwave pyrolysis-H3PO4 activation of woody biomass: Insight into the product characteristics and life cycle assessment

Microwave-assisted pyrolysis coupled with chemical activation was developed to prepare the woody biomass-derived activated carbon (AC) with desirable structural characteristics. In this study, sawdust powder was impregnated with phosphoric acid before being microwave-pyrolyzed to achieve AC. The utilization of microwave greatly enhanced the transformation of volatiles into gaseous components, and the yield of char increased when phosphoric acid accelerated the secondary polymerization of volatile matters. Microwave-induced activation may alter the interaction between activator and sawdust-derived organic species, enriching the categories of oily components. The char originating from microwave-activation treatment has a high graphitization degree, exhibiting superior thermal stability and hydrophilic property. Moreover, one-step microwave-activation approach increased specific surface area (978.2 m2g−1 versus 13.0 m2g−1 in conventional pyrolysis) and improved the formation of porous structure. The life cycle assessment analysis revealed that microwave-activation technique had a low environmental impact due to enhanced heating efficiency and reduced energy consumption.

Environmental life cycle assessment of drink and yoghurt products using non-nutritive sweeteners and sweetness enhancers in place of added sugar: the SWEET project

Abstract Purpose There are increasing concerns regarding detrimental health effects of added sugar in food and drink products. Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) and sweetness enhancers (SE) are seen as viable alternatives. Much work has been done on health and safety of NNS&SE when consumed in place of sugar, but very little on their sustainability. This work aims to bridge that gap with an environmental study of replacing added sugar with NNS&SE in the context of drink and yoghurt. Methods A life cycle assessment (LCA) approach was used to compare environmental impact of a drink and yoghurt, sweetened with sucrose, to those sweetened with NNSs or an SE: stevia rebaudioside A, sucralose, aspartame, neotame, and thaumatin. Primary ingredients data were taken from preparation of foodstuffs for clinical trials. Results are reported via the ReCiPe 2016 (H) method, with focus on land use, global warming potential (GWP), marine eutrophication, mineral resource scarcity, and water consumption. Impacts are reported in terms of 1 kg product. Scenarios explore sensitivity of the LCA results to change in background processes, functional unit, and sweetener type. This research was conducted as part of the EU Horizon 2020 project SWEET (sweeteners and sweetness enhancers: impact on health, obesity, safety, and sustainability). Results and discussion Replacing sugar with an NNS or part-replacing with an SE is shown to reduce environmental impact across most impact categories, for example, on a mass basis, GWP for a drink reduces from 0.61 to approx. 0.51 kgCO2-eq/kg and for a yoghurt from 4.15 to approx. 3.73 kgCO2-eq/kg. Variability in environmental impact is shown to be relatively small between the NNSs, indicating that choice of NNS is less important than the reformulation changes required to accommodate the loss of sugar. Reporting impact in terms of calorie density, instead of mass, shows greater reduction in environmental impact when using an NNS or SE and shows how important functional unit is when reporting impact of these products. Conclusion This study is the first to compare food or drink products sweetened with sugar, NNS, or SE. Results show that there is great potential to reduce environmental impact of sweetened drinks and yoghurts. Moreover, the choice of NNS does not greatly affect the environmental impact of either product. Therefore, this research shows that choices relating to replacing added sugar may be based more upon health or formulation needs and less on environmental concerns.

A life cycle assessment of protein production from wheatgrass: Optimization potential of a novel vertical farming system

The global protein demand is expected to keep increasing due to a growing global population, combined with changing social demography and other factors. OrbiPlant®, a novel vertical farming technology developed in Germany, is used to cultivate wheatgrass (Triticum aestivum) as one possible solution for realizing a sustainable protein supply to meet this challenge. The objective of this study was to investigate the environmental impacts of wheatgrass protein concentrate powder produced in the novel vertical farming system and compare it with traditional protein sources (cheese and soy protein). To achieve this, a ‘cradle-to-gate’ life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed using OpenLCA software and Environment Footprint 3.1 method. The results show that wheatgrass protein from vertical farming has lower environmental impacts than cheese protein in terms of terrestrial eutrophication, and land use, similar impacts on freshwater ecotoxicity and particulate matter, but higher impacts in other categories. Due to the high environmental impact of the current Germany electricity mix, the overall environmental performance of wheatgrass protein remains non-competitive to traditional protein sources. By optimizing production, the environmental impact can be reduced to just 57.8 % of the cheese protein. This finding highlights the potential of the investigated wheatgrass protein from vertical farming system to reduce environmental impacts when substituting animal-based protein. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of utilizing renewable energy sources.

Understanding substitution impacts of harvested wood and processing residues to mitigate climate change: A case of Chattogram, Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, the role of harvested wood (e.g. wood products and associated processing residues) to mitigate climate change is less known and often ignored. This study aims to understand the substitution impacts of harvested wood products and associated processing residues in Chattogram city area, Bangladesh. Additionally, we also explored sellers' and users' perceptions towards the use of wood biomass and associated effects, with users’ level of satisfaction with using different categories of products of wood, bamboo, steel, and plastic. The study only considered sawn wood from sawmills to the wooden furniture and building materials, and associated residues, but excluded carbon in the forest ecosystem. A survey, using three different types of pre-tested questionnaires consisting of open and close-ended questions, was carried out in 36 sawmills, 62 timber merchants, and 55 furniture manufacturers or shops, with their owners or managers in Chattogram City Corporation area, Bangladesh. We used the general displacement factors of 0.5, 0.45, 1, and 1.3 tC tC−1 for processing residues, composite wood furniture, solid wood furniture, and building materials, respectively. The amount of wood products and associated residues and their avoided emissions due to substitution were presented in m3 industry−1 year−1 and Mg industry−1 year−1. Results revealed that the highest mean annual consumptions of timber (783.95 m3 industry−1 year−1) and processing residues (196.05 m3 industry−1 year−1) were in the sawmills and the lowest (60.56 and 0.66 m3 industry−1 year−1) in the furniture manufacturers. Altogether, the processing of round logs generated 36% residues of its mass from sawmilling to furniture manufacture. Sawn wood (of sawmills and timber merchants) consumed in the building houses produced the highest annual avoided emissions (1029.51 Mg CO2 industry−1 year−1). The development of efficient products with long lifespans, in addition to factors such as forest management, emissions, waste generation, and life cycle assessments of products likely play a significant role in determining the overall impact on displacement factors. The future study should focus on developing material flow analysis integrated with a life cycle assessment approach for various products for the construction and associated sectors, thus generating a country-specific displacement factor. The perception-based study documented that wood furniture and processing residues as bioenergy were perceived as a good substitute for non-wood furniture (e.g., steel, plastic) and fossil fuels (gas, oil) and thus lowering fossil emissions as wood products were perceived as user-and-environment-friendly and attractive. However, environmental awareness of both consumers and sellers about wood and bioenergy use and forest degradation is crucial for turning them into positive from neutral perceptions.

Life cycle assessment of organic and conventional egg production: A case study in northern Italy

According to FAO projections, meat and fish production will have to increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the needs of the growing global population and its protein requirements. The poultry sector has been one of the most responsive industries to the growing demand for protein, with a significant increase in egg and chicken meat production. Although eggs are important foods in the human diet, environmental impacts and ethical aspects could also affect dietary choices. This study aimed to assess the environmental impacts of egg production, by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). More specifically, the study compared two different farming systems of conventional and organic egg production, with reference to two case studies in northern Italy. The results obtainedgenerally showed the conventional system to be more efficient compared to the organic system. For example, as regards the impact category of Fine particulate matter formation, the conventional system had a 28.6% lower impact than the organic system. Another major difference was in the Land use category, where the conventional system had an impact of 48.5% less than the organic system. The Organic Scenario showed some critical aspects, e.g. the need for a large agricultural area, low feed conversion rates and low crop yields. The two production scenarios showed that in terms of environmental impact, the main difference between organic and conventional egg production resides in feed production. I It is, therefore, essential to work on a low input formula, to substitutethe diet components with the greatest impact and adopt strategies to obtain an increase in yields and/or a reduction in resource consumption during the cultivation phase. The complete substitution of soybean with other local crops could reduce several impacts, including the one linked to transport. The further reduction of maize could also limit the expected impact.

Life cycle assessment of suberin and betulin production from birch bark

In this study, the environmental impact of suberin and betulin production from birch outer bark was evaluated using life-cycle assessment (LCA), and the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) method. The system boundary includes production of outer bark to betulin and suberin production, with bark residues utilized for energy production, including all inputs (materials and energy) and outputs. Three scenarios were used to examine using the allocation, extraction and hydrolysation of birch bark. In the baseline scenario (S1), the bark came from a biorefinery and processed in a separate unit, where the hydrolysed bark residue was incinerated to generate the heat; the integrated scenario (S2) and internal loop scenario (S3) considered production within a biorefinery but with different energy sources. The primary data were collected from laboratory experiments, and secondary data were taken from the literature and the ecoinvent 3.9.1 database. FU was 2.06 kg of polymer production that includes 1 kg of suberin and 1.06 kg of betulin production from the same process. The results showed that the global warming potential (GWP) for S1 was 15.5 kg CO2 eq. per FU, 16.22 kg CO2 eq./FU in S2 and 3.96 kg CO2 eq./FU in S3. According to our results, increasing the recycling rate of ethanol (50%, 90% and 98%) in the process and using wood-based energy from the biorefinery instead of Finnish mixed electricity resulted in a significant reduction in the most important environmental impact categories except land use.

Social life cycle assessment of green hydrogen production: Evaluating a projected Portuguese industrial production plant

The increase in industrial production and energy consumption has led to excessive exploitation of non-renewable resources, resulting in serious environmental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions. In response, there's a growing investment in renewable energies such as hydroelectric, wind, and solar power. However, these sources are unable to fully meet demand, leading to imbalances between consumption and production. An emerging solution to this challenge is green hydrogen, produced from clean sources, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. The S-LCA methodology presented in the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for the Social Life Cycle Assessment is applied to the production of green hydrogen via the electrolytic separation of water using a proton exchange electrolyser. The process involves the extraction and processing of raw materials from the electrolyser, BOP and reverse osmosis system, the manufacture of the systems and the production of green hydrogen. The data from each stage is inventoried and entered into the PSILCA v.3.1 and SHDB 2022FV5 databases, integrated into the SimaPro software version 9.3.0.2, enabling a complete analysis of the social impacts associated with the production of green hydrogen. The data was evaluated considering 4 stakeholder categories: workers, value chain actors, society and local community. The results indicate that the extraction and processing of raw materials for the electrolyser was the primary stage responsible for the social impacts in both databases. However, the electrolyser manufacturing stage was the main contributor to the indicators “weekly working hours per employee” and “union density” in the PSILCA database. Nafion® and Iridium were identified as the major contributors among components in both databases. The study highlights the significant role played by countries like China and South Africa in social impacts, particularly in the extraction and processing of raw materials. Despite this, Portugal emerged as the largest contributor to five out of fourteen indicators in the PSILCA database, while its contributions in the SHDB database were less than 7 %. Moreover, a comparison between the two databases revealed that PSILCA exhibited a greater distribution of results across various stages, components, and countries assessed, whereas SHDB showed more centralized results. The observed discrepancies between the results obtained from different databases can be attributed to three main factors: the input-output database utilized in each S-LCA tool, the assumed risk levels for each indicator, and the equivalence between indicators and subcategories. This exploratory study offers valuable insights for guiding strategic decisions regarding the social component of sustainability, providing a detailed understanding of the social impacts associated with the specific case of green hydrogen production in a planned hub in Portugal.

Life Cycle Assessment of Natural Gas Production in Java Sea-East Java Province, Indonesia

Energy products including natural gas play a very important role in the context of global economic, industrial, and infrastructure development. However, it is undeniable that the production process from raw material extraction to ready-to-use products has an impact on the environment. This study was conducted to evaluate the environmental impact of natural gas production in the Kepodang field, East Java Province, Indonesia. The next objective is to analyze the magnitude and significance of the impact or hotspot analysis. The characterization results for 4 main categories show: Global Warming Potential 70.02 kg CO₂ eq, Ozone Layer Depletion 1.11E-06 kg CFC-11 eq, Acidification Potential 0.65 mol H+ eq, Marine Eutrophication 0.30 kg N eq, and Freshwater Eutrophication 2.17E-03kg P eq. The results also show that throughout the life cycle of this product, the largest contributor to environmental impacts is in the downstream phase, especially the user gas metering unit process. This is due to the 200 km of pipelines for product transportation from the Central Processing Platform (CPP) to the user gate. Pipeline parameters (Ecoinvent database) refer to long-distance pipelines with high capacity. In addition, hotspots were also identified in the core phase: gas measurement and chromatography, gas turbine generators, and flare gas.