Satiety Levels Research Articles

Empty bags, fuller stomachs: how empty packages give the illusion of fullness (626.19)

Leftovers from one’s meal serve as an external cue to how much a person has eaten, and consequently to fullness (Wansink 2006). The current study aimed to examine whether empty bags that are left on a table unrelatedly to how much a person has eaten are also taken as an external cue to fullness, leading people to report a higher level of fullness. Participants (N = 63) approached a table containing empty bags of Lays potato chips. Participants were randomly assigned to either a small or large bags condition, with the table containing 5 small (1.88 ounces) or 5 large (10 ounces) empty bags respectively. The presence of the empty bags was justified by bowls of chips given to participants to eat after completion of satiety measure at the tables. Satiety was measured with three 9‐point items measuring hunger, fullness, and desire to eat. Participants facing large bags reported a higher level of satiety (4.64) than did participants facing small bags (3.8). The difference was significant at a .01 level: t(62) = ‐2.69. It appears that having larger empty bags signaled to participants that they had eaten more, leading them to report a higher level of satiety.

Appetite sensations, appetite signaling proteins, and glucose in obese adolescents with subclinical binge eating disorder.

Objective. This study aimed to investigate potential differences in appetite sensations, ghrelin, peptide YY, and glucose and their relationship with energy and macronutrient intake in obese adolescents with subclinical binge eating disorder. Methods. Fifteen obese adolescents (six and nine individuals with and without subclinical binge eating disorder, resp.) qualified for this study. Visual analog scales and Three-Factor Eating Questionnaires were used to assess eating behaviours. Circulating ghrelin, peptide YY, and glucose were measured after fasting and at multiple time points postprandially following a standardized breakfast meal. Energy and macronutrient intake were measured with an ad libitum lunch buffet. Results. Emotional eating scores were significantly higher in obese adolescents with subclinical binge eating disorder. Hunger levels rose and satiety levels fell significantly over the course of the monitoring period but there was no difference between the two groups. Obese adolescents with subclinical binge eating disorder did not have significantly different levels of appetite signaling proteins or glucose. Obese adolescents with subclinical binge eating disorder had a nonsignificantly higher energy and macronutrient intake. Conclusions. A significant difference between the two groups in terms of their emotional eating scores highlights the important role that psychological factors play in relation to eating behaviours.

Differential effects of intranasal oxytocin on sexual experiences and partner interactions in couples

Knowledge about the effects of the neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) on human sexual behaviors and partner interactions remains limited. Based on our previous studies, we hypothesize that OXT should be able to positively influence parameters of sexual function and couple interactions.Employing a naturalistic setting involving 29 healthy heterosexual couples (n=58 participants), we analyzed the acute effects of intranasally administered OXT (24IU) on sexual drive, arousal, orgasm and refractory aspects of sexual behavior together with partner interactions. Data were assessed by psychometric instruments (Acute Sexual Experiences Scale, Arizona Sexual Experience Scale) as well as biomarkers, such as cortisol, α-amylase and heart rate.Intranasal OXT administration did not alter “classical” parameters of sexual function, such as sexual drive, arousal or penile erection and lubrication. However, analysis of variance and a hierarchical linear model (HLM) revealed specific effects related to the orgasmic/post-orgasmic interval as well as parameters of partner interactions. According to HLM analysis, OXT increased the intensity of orgasm, contentment after sexual intercourse and the effect of study participation. According to ANOVA analysis, these effects were more pronounced in men. Men additionally indicated higher levels of sexual satiety after sexual intercourse with OXT administration. Women felt more relaxed and subgroups indicated better abilities to share sexual desires or to empathize with their partners. The effect sizes were small to moderate. Biomarkers indicated moderate psychophysiological activation but were not affected by OXT, gender or method of contraception.Using a naturalistic setting, intranasal OXT administration in couples exerted differential effects on parameters of sexual function and partner interactions. These results warrant further investigations, including subjects with sexual and relationship problems.

An Alternative to Current Therapies of Functional Dyspepsia: Self‐Administrated Transcutaneous Electroacupuncture Improves Dyspeptic Symptoms

Functional dyspepsia is of high prevalence with little treatment options. The aim of this study was to develop a new treatment method using self-management transcutaneous electroacupuncture (TEA) for functional dyspepsia (FD). Twenty-eight patients with FD were enrolled and underwent a crossover clinical trial with 2-week TEA at ST36 and PC6 and 2-week sham-TEA at nonacupuncture sham-points. Questionnaires were used to assess symptoms of dyspepsia and quality of life. Physiological testing included gastric emptying and electrogastrography. It was found that (1) TEA but not sham-TEA significantly improved dyspeptic symptoms and 4 domains in quality of life; improvement was also noted in self-rated anxiety and depression scores; (2) gastric emptying was significantly and substantially increased with 2-week TEA but not sham-TEA; and (3) gastric accommodation was also improved with TEA but not sham-TEA, reflected as increased ingested nutrient volumes at the levels of satiety and maximum tolerance. These findings suggest a therapeutic potential of self-administrated TEA method for functional dyspepsia, possibly attributed to improvement in gastric motility.

Carbohydrate supplements and their effects on pasture dry matter intake, feeding behavior, and blood factors associated with intake regulation

Supplementary feeds are offered to grazing dairy cows to increase dry matter (DM) and metabolizable energy (ME) intakes; however, offering feed supplements reduces pasture DM intake, a phenomenon known as substitution. The objective of the study was to investigate changes in blood factors associated with intake regulation in monogastric species in pasture-fed dairy cows supplemented with either a starch- or nonforage fiber-based concentrate. Fifteen multiparous Friesian × Jersey cross cows were assigned to 1 of 3 treatments at calving. Measurements were undertaken in wk 8 of lactation. Treatments were pasture only, pasture plus a starch-based concentrate (3.5kg of DM/cow per day; STA), and pasture plus a nonforage fiber-based concentrate (4.4kg of DM/cow per day). Pelleted concentrates were fed at an isoenergetic rate in 2 equal portions at a.m. and p.m. milkings. Measurements were undertaken to investigate differences in pasture DM intake, feeding behavior, and profiles of blood factors for 4h after a.m. and p.m. milkings, the periods of intensive feeding in grazing cows. Supplementing cows with STA concentrate reduced pasture DM intake to a greater extent than the fiber concentrate, although time spent eating did not differ between treatments. The blood factor response to feeding differed between the a.m. and p.m. feeding events. Blood factors associated with a preprandial or fasted state were elevated prefeeding in the a.m. and declined following feeding, whereas satiety factors increased. In comparison, the blood factor response to feeding in the p.m. differed, with responses to feeding delayed for most factors. Plasma ghrelin concentration increased during the p.m. feeding event, despite the consumption of feed and the positive energy state remaining from the previous a.m. feeding, indicating that environmental factors (e.g., sunset) supersede physiological cues in regulating feeding behavior. The greater reduction in pasture DM intake for the STA treatment in the p.m. may be related to the level of hunger or satiety before the feeding event and not solely to the consumption of supplement. Data indicate that neuroendocrine factors are, at least in part, responsible for the substitution of pasture for supplementary feeds.

Solid Versus Liquid—Satiety Study in Well-Adjusted Lap-Band Patients

Patients following laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB) are generally advised to avoid liquid calories, opt for solids and refrain from drinking with meals as this is believed to prolong satiety. The role of food consistency and satiety following LAGB is largely uninvestigated. The purpose of the study was to: (1) determine if food consistency impacts on post meal satiety in participants with well-adjusted LAGB and (2) compare the level of satiety achieved after consuming a solid versus a liquid meal between groups. Twenty intervention (well-adjusted LAGB) and 20 control participants were recruited. All participants consumed three iso-caloric breakfasts that were randomised for nine mornings. Participants were asked to rate their satiety on visual analogue scales (VAS) at set times after the test meal. Areas under the curve (AUC) VAS scores were compared within and between groups. Solids (bars) with or without water provided greater satiety than the liquids (shakes) for both groups. Drinking water with the bar did influence satiety in the intervention group. For the intervention group (LAGB), AUC VAS values for the bar with water were 77.4 ± 11.2* and 72.4 ± 16.7* for the controls. Solid meals are more satisfying in both LAGB and non-LAGB individuals. However, a solid meal with accompanying water did not alter meal satiety.

Pseudobezoars: Technology Progress and New Prospects as a Medical Platform

In recent years, pseudobezoars have been a subject of research, mainly serving as a basis for a new non-invasive alternative to obesity treatment. A pill incorporating the technology has been proven to be successful as a weight loss therapy. It enables patients to sustain a diet longer, due to an increase in the level of satiety, resulting in a smaller amount of food intake. Utilization of the technology has recently found new prospects in another organ of the GI tract, the colon. Pseudobezoar technology can be utilized as an enhanced method for colon cancer screening and also as an alternative carrier for bacterial therapy.

Effects of apple cider vinegar on postprandial blood glucose and satiety

The study objective was to describe changes in postprandial blood glucose and satiety following ingestion of 30 ml apple cider vinegar. In a crossover design, 15 healthy adults consumed a breakfast of cooked farina cereal containing 50 grams of available carbohydrate, served with and without 30 ml apple cider vinegar, in random order following an overnight fast. Blood glucose and satiety were assessed at minutes 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120. There were no significant differences in blood glucose levels or glucose incremental areas under the curve (IAUCs) between the two conditions. Satiety levels at 15 min and satiety IAUC at 0–15 min were significantly higher (p =.038 and p =.038, respectively) with vinegar. These results suggest ingestion of apple cider vinegar at mealtime has no effect on glycemic response and only short‐term influence on satiety in healthy adults.

Infant regulation of intake: the effect of free glutamate content in infant formulas

We recently discovered that infants randomly assigned to a formula high in free amino acids (extensive protein hydrolysate formula; ePHF) during infancy consumed less formula to satiation and gained less weight than did infants fed an isocaloric formula low in free amino acids (cow milk formula; CMF). Because ePHF and CMF differ markedly in concentrations of free glutamate, we tested the hypothesis that the higher glutamate concentrations in ePHF promote satiation and satiety. In this counterbalanced, within-subject study, infants <4 mo of age (n = 30) visited our laboratory for 3 sets of 2 consecutive infant-led formula meals over 3 test days. Infants were fed 1 of 3 isocaloric formulas during each first meal: CMF, ePHF, or CMF with added free glutamate to approximate concentrations in ePHF (CMF+glu). When infants signaled hunger again, they were fed a second meal of CMF. From these data, we calculated satiety ratios for each of the 3 formulas by dividing the intermeal interval by the amount of formula consumed during that particular first meal. Infants consumed significantly less CMF+glu (P < 0.02) and ePHF (P < 0.04) than CMF during the first meals. They also showed greater levels of satiety after consuming CMF+glu or ePHF: satiety ratios for CMF+glu (P < 0.03) and ePHF (P < 0.05) were significantly higher than for CMF. These findings suggest a role of free glutamate in infant intake regulation and call into question the claim that formula feeding impairs infants' abilities to self regulate energy intake.

Short-Term Effects of Ratio of Energy Nutrients on Appetite-Related Hormones in Female College Students

Understanding the relationship between energy nutrients compositions in a diet and appetite-controlling substances is essential for providing sound advice to anyone attempting to control body weight. Appetite is known to be affected by various hormones, ghrelin and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY), which are related to the compositions of a diet. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of compositions of energy nutrients in the diet on the levels of postprandial appetite-related hormones and satiety in healthy adult women. Ten subjects (BMI: 18.5-22.9 kg/m2) were recruited and assigned to three iso-coloric breakfast meals with different compositions of energy nutrients, regular meal (RM, CHO: 60%, Pro: 20%, Fat: 20%), high protein meal (HPM, CHO: 30%, Pro: 50%, Fat: 20%), and high fat meal (HFM, CHO: 30%, Pro: 20%, Fat: 50%). Blood levels of ghrelin, PYY, insulin and leptin and satiety were assessed at baseline, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min following the consumption of each meal. There was no significant difference in the fasting blood hormones among the subjects taking each meals at baseline. Blood levels of ghrelin and insulin changed significantly following the consumption of each meal (p<0.05) over time, however no significant difference was shown between experimental meals until 180 min. Blood levels of PYY and leptin were not changed following the ingestion of each meals. In conclusion, the composition of energy nutrients in a diet had no effect on the postprandial plasma levels of ghrelin, PYY, insulin and leptin as well as satiety in healthy adult women.

Effects of dietary energy concentration, nonstarch polysaccharide concentration, and particle sizes of nonstarch polysaccharides on digesta mean retention time and gut development in laying hens

1. From an experiment with 504 laying hens (ISA Brown strain, 18–40 weeks of age), 90 40-week old hens were used for determining digesta mean retention time (MRT) and gut weight development. This experiment comprised 6 dietary treatments according to a 2 × 3 factorial design. Factors were dietary apparent metabolisable energy (AME) concentration (11·8 vs 10·6 MJ/kg), insoluble nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) concentration (65 vs 134 g/kg), and fine vs coarse particle sizes of added NSP. Titanium recovery in different gut segments was used as an indicator of MRT. 2. Increasing NSP concentration prolonged MRT in the crop (68 vs 34 min) and total foregut (91 vs 57 min) compared with control NSP. Reducing energy concentration prolonged MRT in the colon (26 vs 7 min), and total hind gut (30 vs 9 min), compared with control energy. Overall MRT was not affected by dietary treatments. 3. Increasing NSP concentration increased relative weights of the empty proventriculus-gizzard and its contents by 30% (25·2 vs 19·4 g/kg) and 18% (15·4 vs 13·0 g/kg), respectively, compared with control NSP diets. 4. MRT in the foregut was prolonged as daily insoluble NSP intake increased, and this was more pronounced in hens given coarsely ground NSP, compared with finely ground. A prolonged MRT in the foregut seemed to indicate a higher level of satiety, which may contribute to a lower feather pecking pressure in laying hens.

Long-term efficacy of high-protein diets: a systematic review.

The rationale for the use of high-protein diets is that they offer a higher level of satiety for a longer period of time when compared with carbohydrates or fats; this diminishes calorie consumption in the long-run. The purpose of this review was to assess the efficacy of long-term randomized clinical trials. We used Pubmed, EBSCO and SCIELO to conduct our searches. Inclusion criteria were: randomized clinical trials conducted in adults, with an intervention/follow-up of at least 24 weeks, stating the specific amount of energy protein (in percentages) in the diet; with a control group with either a conventional energy restricted diet or a high-fat/high-carbohydrate diet, also the studies should provide at least body weight or body mass index (BMI) at the beginning and at the end of the intervention. A total of 481 studies were found. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Weight loss difference in those with the highest weight loss with the high-protein diet ranged from 3.7 kg in a six month trial to 1.2 kg in a 17 month trial. The average weight loss of the eight studies in the high-protein diet was 6.3 kg and in the standard diet was 5.0 kg. Although half of the studies showed a higher weight loss with a high-protein diet, three out of four studies with the longest intervention show no statistical difference in weight loss. In this systematic review it was observed that the long-term effect of high-protein diets is neither consistent nor conclusive.

Eficacia a largo plazo de las dietas altas en proteínas: revisión sistemática

The rationale for the use of high-protein diets is that they offer a higher level of satiety for a longer period of time when compared with carbohydrates or fats; this diminishes calorie consumption in the long-run. The purpose of this review was to assess the efficacy of long-term randomized clinical trials. We used Pubmed, EBSCO and SCIELO to conduct our searches. Inclusion criteria were: randomized clinical trials conducted in adults, with an intervention/follow-up of at least 24 weeks, stating the specific amount of energy protein (in percentages) in the diet; with a control group with either a conventional energy restricted diet or a high-fat/high-carbohydrate diet, also the studies should provide at least body weight or body mass index (BMI) at the beginning and at the end of the intervention. A total of 481 studies were found. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Weight loss difference in those with the highest weight loss with the highprotein diet ranged from 3.7 kg in a six month trial to 1.2 kg in a 17 month trial. The average weight loss of the eight studies in the high-protein diet was 6.3 kg and in the standard diet was 5.0 kg. Although half of the studies showed a higher weight loss with a high-protein diet, three out of four studies with the longest intervention show no statistical difference in weight loss. In this systematic review it was observed that the long-term effect of high-protein diets is neither consistent nor conclusive.

Taste as a basis for body wisdom

The sense of taste uses a variety of discrete receptor mechanisms to identify nutrients and toxins. Information from receptors is arrayed along a dimension of physiological welfare, which serves as the organizing principle of the taste system. This, in turn, drives central physiological and neurochemical processes that underlie hedonics: nutrients elicit reward; toxins, aversion. The sensitivity of the taste system, and so the placement of chemical stimuli along the welfare dimension, is modifiable based on level of satiety, experience, or physiological need. These modifications may be sufficient to guide the animal's food choices according to those that satisfy its needs at the moment. Thus, judicious changes in taste sensitivity of the rodent may underlie the demonstrated behavior of body wisdom.

Liquid and solid carbohydrate foods: comparative effects on glycemic and insulin responses, and satiety

It is speculated that the physical form (liquid or solid) of the food substrate has an independent effect on the body's satiety mechanisms. Using a balanced and controlled design, the objective of the present study was to determine the glycemic response (GR), insulin response (IR) and subjective feelings of satiety to two solid (rice [BR] and spaghetti) and two liquid (orange juice and a sugar-sweetened fruit drink [SSD]) foods. Ten healthy participants consumed volume (576 ml) and carbohydrate (50 g) matched portions of the above test foods following a 12-h fast. Blood samples were obtained for the ensuing 120 min for glucose and insulin determination. The subjects also completed visual analog scales (VAS) providing data on subjective feelings of hunger, fullness and satiety. Although there were some significant differences in the total incremental areas under the curve for the GR and IR to liquids and solids, there were notable distinctions in the pattern of the response curves. The BR and SSD elicited significantly different levels of subjective hunger, fullness and satiety. The VAS ratings for all four treatments were at or below baseline by 30 min post-consumption. There were no associations between the GR/IR and VAS ratings. Although the GR and IR were not different between liquids and solids, their differential response patterns could have an impact on satiety and merits further investigation.

Consumer perceptions of satiety-related snack food decision making

The aim of this study is to gain more insight into how consumers’ perceptions of the satiety value of snack products influence their choice of such products and to get a better understanding of consumer terminology and perceptions about product-related satiety. Participants were asked to indicate their individual product choice in response to a scenario. Scenarios varied as a between-subject factor in terms of whether information on the time gap till the next meal occasion (favorite main dish) was provided or not, and whether this meal would be eaten after one hour or four hours. To get a better understanding of consumer terminology a repertory grid task was used to elicit consumer attributes relating to satiety. This research shows that, when consumers are confronted with situations that vary in satiety requirements, they do not make significantly different snack products choices. But they do have specific ideas about the product features that influence the perceived satiety level of a product. Products perceived as fat, high in protein, with a savory taste and in one piece are expected to have a higher level of satiety compared to sweet products and products that exist of multiple small items.

Walnut Consumption Increases Satiation but Has No Effect on Insulin Resistance or the Metabolic Profile Over a 4‐day Period

Obesity and diabetes have been associated with increased consumption of highly processed foods, and reduced consumption of whole grains and nuts. It has been proposed, mainly on the basis of observational studies, that nuts may provide superior satiation, may lead to reduced calorie consumption, and may decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes; but evidence from randomized, interventional studies is lacking. A total of 20 men and women with the metabolic syndrome participated in a randomized, double-blind, crossover study of walnut consumption. Subjects had two 4-day admissions to the clinical research center where they were fed an isocaloric diet. In addition, they consumed shakes for breakfast containing either walnuts or placebo (shakes were standardized for calories, carbohydrate, and fat content). Appetite, insulin resistance, and metabolic parameters were measured. We found an increased level of satiety (overall P value = 0.0079) and sense of fullness (P = 0.05) in prelunch questionnaires following the walnut breakfast as compared to the placebo breakfast, with the walnut effect achieving significance on day 3 and 4 (P = 0.02 and P = 0.03). We did not find any change in resting energy expenditure, hormones known to mediate satiety, or insulin resistance when comparing the walnut vs. placebo diet. Walnut consumption over 4 days increased satiety by day 3. Long-term studies are needed to confirm the physiologic role of walnuts, the duration of time needed for these effects to occur, and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Effects of stevia, aspartame, and sucrose on food intake, satiety, and postprandial glucose and insulin levels

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages may be one of the dietary causes of metabolic disorders, such as obesity. Therefore, substituting sugar with low calorie sweeteners may be an efficacious weight management strategy. We tested the effect of preloads containing stevia, aspartame, or sucrose on food intake, satiety, and postprandial glucose and insulin levels. Design: 19 healthy lean (BMI=20.0–24.9) and 12 obese (BMI=30.0–39.9) individuals 18–50 years old completed three separate food test days during which they received preloads containing stevia (290kcal), aspartame (290kcal), or sucrose (493kcal) before the lunch and dinner meal. The preload order was balanced, and food intake (kcal) was directly calculated. Hunger and satiety levels were reported before and after meals, and every hour throughout the afternoon. Participants provided blood samples immediately before and 20min after the lunch preload. Despite the caloric difference in preloads (290kcal vs. 493kcal), participants did not compensate by eating more at their lunch and dinner meals when they consumed stevia and aspartame versus sucrose in preloads (mean differences in food intake over entire day between sucrose and stevia=301kcal, p<.01; aspartame=330kcal, p<.01). Self-reported hunger and satiety levels did not differ by condition. Stevia preloads significantly reduced postprandial glucose levels compared to sucrose preloads (p<.01), and postprandial insulin levels compared to both aspartame and sucrose preloads (p<.05). When consuming stevia and aspartame preloads, participants did not compensate by eating more at either their lunch or dinner meal and reported similar levels of satiety compared to when they consumed the higher calorie sucrose preload.

Measures of postprandial wellness after single intake of two protein–carbohydrate meals

The general feeling of wellness after food consumption may play an important role in regulating food intake. This exploratory study aimed at identifying and evaluating measures of such postprandial wellness, tentatively defined as subjective appreciation of life after food intake. The study had a randomized cross-over, double blind design. Twenty-one healthy men with mean age of 33±14 years received two liquid breakfasts with either high protein/low carbohydrate (HP/LC) or low protein/high carbohydrate (LP/HC) ratio on separate days with a washout period of one week in between. Subjective reports on satiety and postprandial wellness (pleasantness, satisfaction, relaxation, sleepiness, physical energy and mental alertness) were established using visual analogue scales at regular time points after consumption of the breakfasts up to 240min. Blood concentrations of CCK, ghrelin, glucose, and insulin were determined at the same time points. The HP/LC breakfast induced higher levels of satiety and specific parameters of postprandial wellness (satisfaction, pleasantness and the pleasantness of these feelings) than the LP/HC breakfast at 3 or 4h after consumption. The corresponding higher CCK and lower ghrelin concentrations at these time points supported these subject reported changes. These results indicate that meal composition influences some parameters of postprandial wellness in line with physiological responses. Further research is warranted to confirm the observed relationships. Also the relevance for food intake behaviour remains to be established.

Energy Expenditure Does not Differ, but Protein Oxidation Rates Appear Lower in Meals Containing Predominantly Meat versus Soy Sources of Protein

Background: High protein meals produce 3 relevant effects in weight management: i) higher thermogenic cost, ii) enhanced fat oxidation, and iii) greater satiation. Pork has been reported to be more thermogenic than soy, suggesting meat protein may be superior to plant protein in a high-protein weight loss diet context. In this study, we aimed to compare the effects of high-protein meals using meat, dairy, and soy sources respectively. Methods: This crossover feeding trial measured energy expenditure, substrate oxidation, and satiety levels of 12 adults during 8-hour stays in a whole-room calorimeter. The 3 isoenergetic high-protein test meals (30% protein, 40% carbohydrate, 30% fat) contained predominantly meat, dairy, and soy protein. Results: There was no significant difference between meals for effects on energy expenditure (p = 0.987), carbohydrate oxidation (p = 0.951), and fat oxidation (p = 0.997). Protein oxidation was significantly lower in meals with predominantly meat compared to soy sources (p = 0.012). There was no significant difference between meals for reported satiety levels (p = 0.296). Conclusion: High-protein meals may be argued as beneficial for weight loss. Animal protein does not appear to offer superior energy expenditure effects, but there may be protein-sparing effects with meat, which may be beneficial in terms of retaining lean body mass.