Level Of Moral Development Research Articles

Public Relations and the Tobacco Industry: Examining the Debate on Practictioner Ethics

This study examines the moral and ethical arguments presented by public relations practitioners in online debate on the appropriateness of representing the tobacco industry or tobacco interests. It is a descriptive and inferential analysis of 21 e-mail messages posted during a 14-month debate on the PRForum, an online newsgroup for public relations professionals, applying Kohlberg's cognitive-development theory of moralization. Debate focused on the right of an organization to promote a legal product versus a practitioner's obligation to protect the welfare of society. Intensity of disagreement, and the inability to achieve consensus, suggests that personal ethical baselines are subjective, that practitioner perceptions of right or wrong are injluenced by their level of cognitive and moral development, and that codes of behavior of professional organizations are too ambiguous to use in dealing with complex ethical issues.

The effect of computerized simulation games on the moral development of junior and senior high-school students

This study deals with the use of a computerized therapeutic simulation game for raising the moral level of junior and senior high-school students. Subjects were asked to play a computerized simulation game dealing with a variety of moral dilemmas and to develop moral dilemmas on their own to be used in the game. The effects of the game on moral development were determined by a moral development measure (MOTEC) set out by Ziv (1976). The levels of moral development of a research group ( N=25) and control group ( N=23) were measured before and after the subjects' exposure to the game. A total of six indices of moral development were used. Three of the indices (moral stages, punishment, and posttransgressional reactions) revealed a positive effect on the participants. The study concludes with a discussion of the effects of the therapeutic game on moral development and the potential uses of such computerized games in the classroom.

The lemming condition: Moral asynchrony and the isolated self

This article uses The Lemming Condition, a fable written by Alan Arkin, as a metaphor for the isolation of the gifted asynchronous child whose level of moral development is out of sync not only with age peers but with human culture itself. These children ask the big questions early, challenging adults to defend the way the world works; adults for the most part fail to answer the questions or even take them seriously. Struggling to make sense of the world on their own, children may doubt the integrity and intelligence of adults, and ultimately the sanity of their own species. They must then engage in an effort to define self either as part of or as separate from that species, from which they feel isolated and alienated, and yet with which they also have a powerful sense of connection. The psychic conflict at the core of the effort to define themselves may lead to giving up on life, on humanity or on self. The task of adults is to recognize the value of children whose development challenges the “world as it is” and help them make the choice in favor of their own, unique vision, a vision that can lead to spiritual growth for the child and moral evolution for humanity.

Is There Moral Giftedness?

Are the higher levels of morality a gift given to some? The first part of this paper describes higher levels of morality by contrasting two approaches: Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmentalism and Dabrowski's Positive Disintegration. The roots of the more holistic theory, Positive Disintegration, are traced back to traditional appreciations of life-death cycles to develop the broad context of dynamic forces within human development and, more specifically, the value issues indigenous to speaking of “higher” and “lower” levels of moral development. Rather than a strictly cognitive activity for solving moral dilemmas, high level morality is seen as a function of the total person, especially factors that constitute developmental potential. Higher morality is then not totally a gift but something chosen, striven for, and indeed the result of some kind of disintegration.

Judging Yourself as You Judge Others: Moral Development and Exculpation

This study investigated two main issues: Whether people's judgments about real-life moral transgressions are affected by the role they play in them and whether self-serving biases in such judgments vary with level of moral development. One-hundred twenty university students took Colby and Kohlberg's (1987) test of moral judgment and made open-ended and rating-scale judgments about three real-life transgressions they considered moral in nature. As expected, participants made more exculpatory judgments about transgressions they committed than they did about transgressions others committed, but participants did not judge transgressions committed against them more harshly than they judged transgressions committed against others. The higher participants scored on Kohlberg's test the less they externalized and excused their moral transgressions. Contrary to expectation, this relation also applied to moral judgments about transgressions committed by others against others. These findings have important implications for models of moral development and social cognition.

An Examination of Moral Development within Public Accounting by Gender, Staff Level, and Firm*

Abstract. This study extends prior research on the average level of moral development in public accounting by examining five large accounting firms and three staff levels. The research is important because it highlights the need to include auditors from several firms in research designs, provides evidence of differences in moral development among public accounting firms, and profiles the professions' average level of moral development for three levels. The data are from 494 managers and seniors (204 females and 290 males) from five Big Six firms. Using the Defining Issues Test (Rest 1979a) to measure moral development, several results were noted. First, the results indicate a difference in the average level of moral development among firms, suggesting that use of subjects from only one firm inhibits the generalizability of findings regarding moral development. Second, female managers are at a significantly higher average level of moral development than male managers. In fact, the average scores for male managers fell between those expected for senior high school and college students. The data suggest that a greater percentage of high‐moral‐development males and low‐moral‐development females are leaving public accounting than their respective opposites. These results indicate that the profession has retained, through advancement, males who are potentially less sensitive to the ethical implications of various issues. The analysis also indicates that Kohlberg's (1969) theory of moral development is not biased towards the thought processes of males because female auditors did not score lower on the Defining Issues Test.

Cognitive moral development and auditor independence

This paper examines the influence of cognitive moral development on an auditor's independence judgments. Over three-hundred audit professionals participated in a field experiment in which they completed a measure of moral development and responded to an ethical dilemma involving auditor independence. The most significant findings are that an auditor's level of moral development affected his or her sensitivity to ethical issues and independence judgments. Additionally, the influence of the audit firm, partitioned by size, moderated the moral development-independence relationship.

Nursing students' responses to ethical dilemmas in nursing practice.

In literature as well as in nursing practice a growing concern about nurses' ethical competence can be observed. Based on the cognitive theory of moral development by Kohlberg, this research examined nursing students' ethical behaviour in five nursing dilemmas. Ethical behaviour refers not only to the ethical reasoning of nursing students but also to the relationship between reasoning and behaviour. Kohlberg's definition of morality was refined by adding a care perspective. The results show that the majority of students can be located in the fourth moral stage according to Kohlberg's theory, that is, the conventional level of moral development. This finding implies that students are still guided by professional rules, norms and duties, and have not (yet) succeeded in making personal ethical decisions on the basis of their own principles and acting according to such decisions.

Cognitive moral development and attitudes toward women executives

Research has shown that men and women are similar in their capabilities and management competence; however, there appears to be a “glass ceiling” which poses invisible barriers to their promotion to management positions. One explanation for the existence of these barriers lies in stereotyped, biased attitudes toward women in executive positions. This study supports earlier findings that attitudes of men toward women in executive positions are generally negative, while the attitudes of women are generally positive. Additionally, we found that an individual's level of cognitive moral development correlates significantly with attitudes toward women executives. Limitations of the present study and implications for ethics and diversity training in organizations are discussed.

Attitudes of Counselor Trainees Toward Minority Clients

ABSTRACT One hundred five counselor trainees were surveyed to determine their attitudes toward ethnic and non-ethnic minorities. The findings suggested that these counseling students hold positive attitudes toward ethnic minorities, somewhat negative attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and moral development levels typical of college populations. Multiple regression analyses found that the level of moral development was positively related to attitudes toward gays and lesbians, but not toward ethnics. As compared to counselor trainees surveyed one decade earlier (McDermott & Stadler, 1988), these trainees exhibited less homophobia. The relationship of moral development and attitudes toward ethnic minorities was also found to have diminished.

The organizational context for moral development: Questions of power and access

In this article it is argued that much research into processes of moral learning and development in organisations has been conducted under somewhat controlled conditions, and that these do not permit testing of individuals' thought and action under more extreme circumstances. Therefore in practice one needs to acknowledge the effect of the actual organisational context. Three aspects or issues concerning the effect of this context on interventions are identified: first, systemic factors, especially corporate culture, impact on individual behaviour; second, consultants and developers may have difficulty when working with people at different levels of moral development; and, third, differential influence among members of an organisation affects the possibility of, and the enactment of, moral development programmes.

Moral Reasoning and Ideological Affiliation: A Cross-National Study

While theories of moral development claim to be structural and bias-free, empirical data consistently report significantly lower levels of moral development among political conservatives. These findings are disturbing for two reasons: either they cast doubt on the bias-free claim of cognitive developmental theory, or they point to afundamental moralflaw in conservative political ideology. To understand the relationship of moral development and political ideology data were collected from members of pro-life and pro-choice organizations in the United States and settlers' and peace groups in Israel (N=547). Two important changes were made in existing research designs. First, moral development and political behavior are examined in a cross-cultural context relative to ideological affiliations, i.e. actual behavior rather than subjective evaluations of political ideology. Second, a closed-end moral judgment test measuring both affective and cognitive aspects ofmoral development is employed. In the American sample significant cognitive differences were found between conservative and liberal subjects, the latter scoring consistently higher on all measures. These differences moderate considerably when education and income are controlled, suggesting that there is no bias in cognitive theory. This conclusion is confirmed by the Israeli sample. The Israeli subjects drew from similar socioeconomic background, and no differences in moral development were found. The Israeli groups also showed greater levels of political independence and lower levels of stereotyping than the American groups. The ramifications of these findings for political education and discourse are discussed in the conclusion of the paper.

MEMARLIQDA MƏKAN VƏ FORMALARA ESTETİK VƏ PSİXOLOJİ BAXIŞ

Abstract. In its evolution, architecture has always been connected with the changing and existing values and needs of people, as well as the development of science and technology. The artistic images of architecture reflect the social life, the level of moral development of culture and its aesthetic ideals. The organization or design of architecture, its purposefulness of the space it is revealed in the organization, grouping of architectural masses, proportional proportions of whole and parts, and rhythmic rowing. The relativity of all the elements of the building characterizes the unique artistic language of architecture. The artistic imagery of spatial forms, the transformation of buildings and structures into works of art should be the main task of the architect. Keywords: aesthetics, space, psychology, design, rhythms

Differences in Moral Reasoning Between College and University Business Majors and Non-Business Majors

Ethics education has been a topic of hot debate in corporate board rooms, business schools and the media for years (Baxter and Rarick, 1987; Belleville, 1990; David et al, 1990; Herman and Cullen, 1988; McLaughlin, 1990; Schoenfeldt et al, 1991; Sims and Sims, 1991). Business schools are often criticized for providing a curriculum that is too narrow and technical, focusing only on quantitative procedures and ignoring the more qualitative issues. If we assume that these sorts of arguments are legitimate, then it seems plausible to ask whether choos ing business as a major is a self-selecting process such that entering business majors differ in moral reasoning from other students in other disciplines. Our claim will be that there is no significant difference be tween the moral reasoning of business and non-business students. The crux of moral development theory is not whether one should commit certain acts, but rather the reason for committing those acts. One way to determine the reasoning, and hence, the level of one's mor al development is to use James Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT) (Rest, 1979). The DIT is a widely-used test to determine the level of moral development by presenting a series of scenarios to a test-taker and offering the test-taker solutions based on different reasoning proce dures. Even though two persons may arrive at the same answer, their reasoning, as revealed by the DIT, can reflect a substantial difference in their moral development and their level of critical thinking. The sce narios and responses represent fundamental, underlying structures of

Ethical development, professional commitment and rule observance attitudes: A study of auditors in Taiwan

Professional commitment, ethical development, and attitudes towards following rules for auditors in Taiwan are examined. Taiwanese accountants exhibit relatively high professional commitment, and commitment increases with rank. Accountants with high professional commitment perceive rule observance as more important than do accountants with low commitment. Accountants who perceived rule observance as important were primarily reasoning at conventional levels of moral development, while accountants who perceived rule observance as less important were reasoning at postconventional levels. Rule observance attitudes may mitigate continued ethical development. Higher professional commitment was associated with a higher level of moral reasoning. However, the mean ethical development of accountants was consistent with the postconventional level of ethical development for both high and low professional commitment conditions.

MORAL REASONING AND EMPATHY AMONG SEX OFFENDERS

This study examined the level of moral development and empathy of adult male sex offenders. Twenty-one male sex offenders and thirty male physical assaulters were assessed using the Defining Issues Test (Rest, 1972) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980). Results indicate significant differences between group means and norm group means on two dimensions of empathy. It is concluded that adult male sex offenders and adult male physical assaulters show significantly lower capacities for principled moral thinking than adult males in the normal population.

Parental Divorce and the Moral Development of Adolescents

To explore the possible association of parental divorce and adolescent's moral development, 103 college students aged 17 to 22 were tested for stage of moral development and parental relations. Students' gender and prior closeness with parents were not significantly associated with variations in their current level of moral development. There was a signif~cant association between parental status of divorce and adolescents' stage of moral development. Subjects whose parents were divorced during their adolescent years exhibited a significantly higher level of moral development than those adolescents whose par- ents were not divorced. The fmdings support the understanding that increased perspective-taking, necessitated among children of divorce by witnessing differences in opinions between their parents, is at the root of moral judgment development.

We Shared Something Special: The Moral Discourse of Incest Perpetrators

At first glance, suggesting that incest perpetrators have moral perspectives on incest seems like an oxymoron, a contradiction in terms. Yet, incest perpetrators are embedded in cultures that view incest as morally repugnant, and laws make incest illegal. Along with other members of their cultures, incest perpetrators are socialized in varying degrees to understand the proscriptions against incest. Consequences for perpetrators can involve repugnance and shame heaped upon them, social ostracism, loss of family relationships, and legal sanctions. In addition, for victims and other family members, incest brings great harm (Armstrong, 1978; Briere, 1992; Browne & Finkelhor, 1986; Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, 1993; Friedrich, 1990; Gilgun, 1990, 1991; Herman, 1992; Rush, 1980; Russell, 1983; Wyatt, Newcomb, & Riederle, 1993). Self-interest, fairness, and concern for doing no harm, especially to persons in close family relationships, would appear to provide sufficient motivation to deter incest for those who might consider it. Yet, incest occurs in 1 in 6 families in the United States (Russell, 1983, 1986), and about 100,000 new cases occur each year (Williams & Finkelhor, 1992). Perpetrators are members of victims' nuclear and extended families. These figures demonstrate the ineffectiveness-for a large number of persons--of moral repugnance and consequent sanctions as deterrents. These figures also suggest an ability of incest perpetrators to suspend, reinterpret, or neutralize moral principles that enjoin them to promote the welfare of others and to avoid incest. In this article, I use the concepts of justice and care to analyze the narrative accounts of incest perpetrators. These concepts are fundamental ideas in moral philosophy and theories of moral development and were brought to widespread attention by the work of Carol Gilligan and her colleagues (Brown & Gilligan, 1992; Gilligan, 1982; Gilligan, Ward, & Taylor, 1988; Lyons, 1983). Data were gathered through open-ended life history interviews. Through narrative accounts, informants give meaning, value, and coherence to a sequence of events, or stories. Their moral values are infused in their accounts (Tappan, 1991). The method of data analysis and interpretation is modified analytic induction. MORAL DOMAINS Justice and care are central concepts in moral philosophy and theories of moral development (Bloom, 1986; Manning, 1992; Noddings, 1984). Though sometimes considered a set of prescriptions based on conceptions of justice (Kohlberg, 1984; Smetana, Kelly, & Twentyman, 1989), morality also is associated with a capacity for care. Controversy exists over whether care or justice is morally preferred and represents a higher level of moral development (Cortese & Mestrovic, 1990; Gilligan, 1982; Gilligan et al., 1988; Kohlberg, 1984; Manning, 1992; Noddings, 1984). Gender enters this controversy because a perspective emphasizing justice is associated with men's moral decision making while care is associated with women's decision making (Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988; Larrabee, 1993). Currently emerging is the perspective that orientations toward justice and care are complementary. The integration of both perspectives characterizes not only morally mature and responsible individuals (Gilligan, 1982; Gilligan et al., 1988; Manning, 1992), but also morally sensitive policies and a political system that, in the words of Bloom (1986), contributes to the personal, intellectual and moral growth of its citizens (p. 97). Criteria for making moral judgments often are implicit and involve interpretations of whether behaviors are just and caring in their intent and consequences and whether individuals take responsibility for the acts and for consequences (Bloom, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; Gilligan et al., 1988; Manning, 1992; Noddings, 1984; Smetana & Kelly, 1989). Care Care encompasses concern, loyalty, and love for self and others (Gilligan, 1982; Dewey, 1908/1980; O'Neill, 1989). …

An assessment of moral development in gifted adolescents

A study was conducted to assess the levels of moral development in gifted adolescents. The participants attended a one month intensive summer institute in which they were administered the Defining Issues Test (DIT) which measures levels of moral development. The results indicated that the students received scores above the norm for their age range. Implications and further considerations for educators are discussed.

The morality of homosexuality.

Homosexuality has been considered a form of mental illness, morally wrong and socially deviant. The purpose of this paper is to present both sides of the homosexuality issue from a religious standpoint: opponents of homosexuality versus supporters of homosexuality. It is proposed that how one interprets the morality of homosexuality will depend upon one's level of moral development according to Kohlberg's theory. Ten churches in the Raleigh area of North Carolina completed a questionnaire designed to ascertain the church's position on the issue of homosexuality. Specifically, questions were asked to ascertain the church's level of moral development.