Level Of Geomagnetic Activity Research Articles

Statistical Analysis of Equatorial Plasma Irregularities Retrieved From Swarm 2013–2019 Observations

AbstractIn this study, we present a statistical analysis of equatorial plasma irregularities (EPIs) by using in situ plasma density measurements of the Swarm constellation from December 2013 to December 2019. The occurrence patterns for both postsunset and postmidnight EPIs with respect to longitude, season, local time, latitude, solar activity, and geomagnetic activity level are investigated. The main findings are as follows: (1) The postsunset/postmidnight EPIs occurrence rates exhibit different longitudinal and seasonal dependence: The postsunset EPIs have the maximum occurrence rate over the American‐Atlantic sectors during the December solstice and equinoxes, and the postmidnight EPIs have the maximum occurrence rate during the June solstice, especially over the African sector. (2) The postsunset EPIs occurrence rates have a positive correlation with solar activity, while the postmidnight EPIs are negatively correlated with it. (3) The latitudinal distribution of EPIs exhibits a double‐peak structure around ±5° magnetic latitude with a more significant peak in the summer hemisphere. (4) The EPIs occurrence rate increases with increasing geomagnetic activity level. (5) The main controlling factors for the distribution of postsunset EPIs are the magnetic declination angle, equatorial vertical E × B drift, and thermospheric zonal wind. For the postmidnight EPIs, the main controlling factors are likely to be atmospheric gravity waves and equatorward thermospheric meridional wind associated with midnight temperature maximum.

Auroral Structure and Dynamics From GOLD

AbstractThe Global‐scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) mission data contain significant quantitative information about the aurora on a global scale. Here we present techniques for quantifying such information, including the temporal development of the structure within the auroral oval using the GOLD images. These techniques are applied to auroral observations in the GOLD data, in particular showing an example of how the longitudinal structure within the aurora varies over the course of six consecutive days with differing levels of geomagnetic activity. A simple model of the solar‐induced airglow is presented that is used to remove the sunlight contamination from the dayside auroral observations. Comparisons to ground‐based auroral imaging are used for the overall auroral context and to make estimates of the proportionality between the intensities of the green line (557.7 nm) emission in the visible and the 135.6 nm emissions in the GOLD data. These observations are consistent with the intensity of the 135.6 nm auroral emission being on the same order as the intensity of the 557.7 nm auroral emission. They were both found to be around 1 kR for a stable auroral arc on a day with low geomagnetic activity (3 November 2018) and around 10 kR for an active auroral display on a day with higher levels of geomagnetic activity (5 November 2018). This could have important implications for making direct comparisons between space‐based ultraviolet auroral imaging and ground‐based visible‐light auroral imaging and the total energy input estimates that are derived from them.

Statistical Analysis of the Main Ionospheric Trough Using Swarm in Situ Measurements

AbstractA statistical analysis of the topside main ionospheric trough is implemented by using the Swarm constellation in situ plasma density measurements from December 2013 to November 2019. The key features of the main trough, such as the occurrence rate, minimum position, width, and depth, are characterized and quantified. The distribution patterns of these parameters are investigated with respect to magnetic local time, season, longitude, solar activity, and geomagnetic activity levels, respectively. The main results are as follows: (1) The diurnal variation of the trough occurrence rate usually exhibits a primary peak in the early morning, a subsidiary peak in the late evening, and a slight reduction around midnight especially in the Northern Hemisphere. (2) The seasonal variation of the nighttime trough has maximum occurrence rates around equinoxes, higher than those in local winter. (3) The trough distribution has an evident hemispherical asymmetry. It is more pronounced in the Northern Hemisphere during the winter and equinoctial seasons, with its average nighttime occurrence rate being 20–30% higher than that in the Southern Hemisphere. The trough minimum position and the trough width also exhibit more significant fluctuation in the Northern Hemisphere. (4) The longitudinal pattern of the trough shows clear east‐west preferences, which has a higher occurrence rate in eastern (western) longitudes around the December (June) solstice. (5) Conditions for the trough occurrence are more favored in low solar activity and high geomagnetic activity periods.

The Properties and Origins of Corotating Plasmaspheric Irregularities as Revealed Through a New Tomographic Technique

AbstractThis paper describes insights into the nature of corotating plasmaspheric irregularities (CPIs) enabled by a newly developed method for range‐ and time‐resolved tomographic images of these structures. The method is based on high‐precision measurements of total electron content gradients measure toward cosmic radio sources using an interferometric radio telescope, the Very Large Array (VLA). Exploiting hundreds of hours of data from the VLA Low‐band Ionosphere and Transient Experiment, we confirm that CPIs are predominantly detected at night and at shells 2–4. Combining this large data set with other ionospheric, atmospheric, and space weather databases, we have established that CPI detection rates are much higher when levels of solar and geomagnetic activity are low. We also demonstrate that higher detection rates coincide with drivers of perturbations in the ionospheric electric field, including sporadic E and gravity waves. The gravity wave sources most commonly associated with CPIs are jet stream bend/shear and substorm‐triggered atmospheric disturbances. We also show that simulations of the plasmaspheric impact of both gravity wave‐driven electric field perturbations and polarization electric fields associated with electrobuoyancy waves/sporadic E produce results that are very similar to what is observed with the VLA.

A Deep Neural Network Model of Global Topside Electron Temperature Using Incoherent Scatter Radars and Its Application to GNSS Radio Occultation

AbstractThe goal of this study is to present a new model for global topside electron temperature ( ) using a deep neural network (DNN) that is trained using measurements from incoherent scatter radars (ISRs). This study is also an investigation into whether this model can be used to generate the electron temperature in the topside ionosphere using GNSS ionospheric radio occultation (GNSS‐IRO) data as the input. ISR is one of the most reliable and long‐term sources to measure topside ionospheric electron density and plasma temperature information simultaneously. However, a drawback of ISR databases is the relatively poor spatial coverage due to the low number of ISR stations around the world. In contrast, GNSS‐IRO can be used to measure the global distributed electron density, but information is not directly detected. The relationship between the electron density and the electron temperature has been investigated by many researchers, but these studies have not explicitly considered the parameters that are known to influence the electron temperature, such as solar and geomagnetic activity level, and the features of electron density profile ( , , and scale height). This study uses a DNN technique to create a new global topside electron temperature model from three submodels that have been trained using data from three ISR stations: Arecibo (low latitude), Millstone Hill (midlatitude), and Poker Flat (high latitude). This global model is trained using electron density profile information (e.g., vertical scale height [VSH], 2, and 2) and solar and geomagnetic activity ( and , respectively) in addition to traditional spatial and temporal variables (e.g., local time, month, and latitude) as the independent variables. After the model is developed, information can be generated from the GNSS‐IRO electron density profiles using a newly created model. This model's outputs are assessed with regard to out‐of‐sample ISR data and compared to the latest International Reference Ionosphere model. It is found that the electron temperature profiles from the DNN have a root‐mean‐square deviation of 259 K in the low‐latitude region (i.e., against Arecibo data), 254 K in the midlatitude region (i.e., against Millstone Hill data), and 314 K in high‐latitude region (i.e., against Poker Flat data), and all of them are smaller than the root‐mean‐square deviation from International Reference Ionosphere. An additional comparison between the model results versus the Thermosphere‐Ionosphere‐Electrodynamics General Circulation Model outputs is also conducted. A statistical analysis of the diurnal electron temperature profiles obtained from GNSS‐IRO is shown to agree with the Thermosphere‐Ionosphere‐Electrodynamics General Circulation Model outputs. The full codes and outputs can be found at the Zenodo (10.5281/zenodo.3637617).

Statistical survey of storm-time energetic particle precipitation

Energetic particles precipitation, which transmits energy from the magnetosphere to the ionosphere, represents an important coupling process between two systems. In this study, we investigate the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of medium-energy (tens to hundreds of keV) energetic particle precipitation (both ions and electrons) with NOAA/POES observations. We found the following results: (1) During storm time, both energetic electron and proton precipitations exhibit dawn-dusk asymmetry in the equatorial plane, possibly caused by plasma waves that are excited and then interact with energetic electrons and protons at different local times. (2) The energetic proton precipitation appears to contain greater energy flux than electrons in storm time, which is contrary to the low-energy particle precipitation where the electrons carry the dominant precipitation energy. (3) The depth of the earthward inner boundary of precipitation in statistics is linearly correlated with geomagnetic activity levels, represented by the SYM-H index.

Investigating the foF2 variations at the Ionospheric Observatory of Rome during different solar cycles minimums and levels of geomagnetic activity

The variations of the hourly observations of the critical frequency foF2, recorded at the Ionospheric Observatory of Rome by the AIS-INGV ionosonde (geographic coordinates 41.82° N, 12.51° E; geomagnetic coordinates 41.69° N, 93.97° E) during the low activity periods at the turn of solar cycles 21–22, 22–23 and 23–24, are investigated. Deviations of foF2 greater than ± 15% with respect to a background level, and with a minimum duration of 3 h, are here considered anomalous. The dependence of these foF2 anomalies on geomagnetic activity has been accurately investigated. Particular attention has been paid to the last deep solar minimum 2007–2009, in comparison with the previous solar cycle minima. The lack of day-time anomalous negative variations in the critical frequency of the F2 layer, is one of the main findings of this work. Moreover, the analysis of the observed foF2 anomalies confirms the existence of two types of positive F2 layer disturbances, characterised by different morphologies and, different underlying physical processes. A detailed analysis of four specific cases allows the definition of possible scenarios for the explanation of the mechanisms behind the generation of the foF2 anomalies.

FoF2 Long-Term Trend at a Station Located near the Crest of the Equatorial Ionization Anomaly

Critical frequency foF2 long-term trends at Dakar station (14.4°N, 342.74°E) located near the crest of the equatorial ionization anomaly EIA, are analysed taking into account geomagnetic activity, increasing greenhouse gases concentration and Earth’s magnetic field secular variation. After filtering solar activity effect using F10.7 as a solar activity proxy, we determined the relative residual trends slopes α values for three different levels of geomagnetic activity. For example, at 1200 LT, the value of α goes from &#450.27%/year for very magnetically quiet days to -0.19%/year for magnetically quiet days and to -0.13%/year for all days. It appears from the slopes α obtained, that they increase with the level of geomagnetic activity and their negative values are qualitatively consistent with the expected decreasing trend due to the increase in greenhouse gases concentration but are greater than 0.003%/year which would result from a 20% increase in CO2 emissions which actually took place during the analysis period. Regarding Earth’s magnetic field magnitude, B secular variation and the dip equator secular movement, Dakar station is located near the crest of the equatorial ionization anomaly, Earth’s magnetic field magnitude, B decreases there and the trough approaches the position of Dakar during the period of analysis. These two phenomena induce a decrease in foF2 which is in agreement with the decreasing trend observed at this station.

Залежність просторового періоду рухомих іоносферних збурень від їхньої відносної амплітуди

The relationship between the horizontal spatial period L and the relative amplitude Ad of traveling ionospheric disturbances (TID) at various levels of solar (SA) and geomagnetic (GA) activity is experimentally studied. In the vast majority of cases, the TIDs observed during our study were generated by high-latitude sources. It was found that the period L and amplitude Ad of the medium-scale (MS) TIDs (L = 100 – 800 km) are related by a linear dependence, which does not depend upon the SA level. For large-scale (LS) TID with L = 1000 – 4000 km, the linear approximation of the function L(Ad) at low and high SA levels are increasing or decreasing functions, respectively. For global-scale (GM) TIDs with L = 5000 – 35000 km at low SA levels, the linear approximation L(Ad) is an increasing function. The function L(Ad) for TIDs of all spatial scales does not depend upon the GA level. The data were collected at the radio-physical observatory of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University (j = 49.63°N, l = 36.32°E) in 1999—2010 with the ionosphere radio sounding by using coherent radio waves at frequencies of about 150 and 400 MHz radiated by low-orbit navigation satellites Parus and Cicada orbiting at circular near-polar orbit with a height of about 1000 km. The experimental dependence of the horizontal period L of TID upon their relative amplitude Ad is explained based on the global prognostic semi-empirical model of the generation and propagation of acoustic-gravitational waves and traveling ionospheric disturbances.

A New Framework to Incorporate High‐Latitude Input for Mesoscale Electrodynamics

AbstractGlobal circulation models (GCMs) for the ionosphere‐thermosphere system traditionally use empirical models to specify upper boundary conditions to represent solar wind and magnetospheric drivers. However, the magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere systems are coupled on different spatial and temporal scales. During increased levels of geomagnetic activity, these empirical models can't resolve dynamic electric field variability ( 500 km, 15 min) because of their statistical nature and/or low spatial and temporal resolutions. This results in an underestimation of energy input to the ionosphere, causing disagreements between model results and observations. This paper introduces a new framework to incorporate dynamic electric fields into GCMs: High‐latitude Input for Mesoscale Electrodynamics (HIME). As a demonstration HIME uses the Poker Flat Incoherent Scatter Radar (PFISR) electric field estimates during an experiment on 2 March 2017. The electric potentials were calculated using the PFISR estimates and merged with a global empirical model of electric potential. A set of high‐latitude electric potential drivers were used to drive the University of Michigan Global Ionosphere Thermosphere Model (GITM) to understand the effects of driving at different scales. Data versus model comparisons for ion temperature, electron temperature, and electron density are provided along the PFISR beams. The ion convection velocities and neutral winds at the PFISR location are compared with the PFISR and Scanning Doppler Imager data. The effects of different multiscale drivers are investigated. The results showed that energy deposited by HIME‐driven simulations was locally larger by approximately an order of magnitude compared to the empirical model‐driven results.

MID-LATITUDE AURORA IN SOLAR CYCLES 23–24 FROM OBSERVATIONS IN THE SOUTH OF EASTERN SIBERIA

The paper presents observations of mid-latitude aurora (MA) in the south of Eastern Siberia in solar cycles 23–24. Spectral composition and dominant emissions of MA, daily distribution of MA detection probability, dependence on the level of geomagnetic activity, and classification according to types of aurora are discussed. A close relationship is shown between the intensity of dominant emission at 630.0 nm and the Dst index during magnetic storms (MSs). It is pointed out that the most intense MA are recorded during MS main phases. The MA detected on November 20, 2003 can enlarge the list of great aurora. For the severe MSs (Dstmin< –200 nT) of March 24, 1991, April 6, 2000, October 30 and November 20, 2003, March 17, 2015, the observed dynamics of 557.7 and 630.0 nm auroral emissions is presented. Mechanisms of emission excitation during geomagnetic storms and a possible connection with magnetospheric structures are discussed.

СРЕДНЕШИРОТНЫЕ СИЯНИЯ В 23–24-х СОЛНЕЧНЫХ ЦИКЛАХ ПО ДАННЫМ НАБЛЮДЕНИЙ НА ЮГЕ ВОСТОЧНОЙ СИБИРИ

The paper presents observations of mid-latitude aurora (MA) in the south of Eastern Siberia in solar cycles 23–24. Spectral composition and dominant emissions of MA, daily distribution of MA detection probability, dependence on the level of geomagnetic activity, and classification according to types of aurora are discussed. A close relationship is shown between the intensity of dominant emission at 630.0 nm and the Dst index during magnetic storms (MSs). It is pointed out that the most intense MA are recorded during MS main phases. The MA detected on November 20, 2003 can enlarge the list of great aurora. For the severe MSs (Dstmin< –200 nT) of March 24, 1991, April 6, 2000, October 30 and November 20, 2003, March 17, 2015, the observed dynamics of 557.7 and 630.0 nm auroral emissions is presented. Mechanisms of emission excitation during geomagnetic storms and a possible connection with magnetospheric structures are discussed.

ВАРИАЦИИ ИОНОСФЕРНЫХ ПАРАМЕТРОВ НАД АЛМА-АТОЙ (КАЗАХСТАН) В 1999–2013 гг.

The paper presents the results of a study of the behavior of ionospheric parameters of the total electron content, I(t), and electron density in the maximum F2 layer, Nm, over Almaty (Kazakhstan) [43.25° N; 76.92° E] in 1999–2013. The time interval under study covers different solar activity levels. We have shown that at F10.7>175 in summer and at F10.7>225 in winter there is a saturation effect, i.e. with increasing solar activity level values of I(t) do not increase. The observed nonlinear relationship between the total electron content of the ionosphere and the solar radiation flux F10.7 results from the nonlinear relationship between the solar ultraviolet radiation and the solar radiation flux.
 The study of the variability of the mid-latitude ionosphere parameters during different solar and geomagnetic activity levels has shown that the standard deviation ç(x) and average shift Xave of I(t) and Nm fluctuations relative to the quiet level weakly depend on solar activity, but greatly depend on geomagnetic activity when F10.7<100.

VARIATIONS OF IONOSPHERIC PARAMETERS OVER ALMATY (KAZAKHSTAN) IN 1999–2013

The paper presents the results of a study of the behavior of ionospheric parameters of the total electron content, I(t), and electron density in the maximum F2 layer, Nm, over Almaty (Kazakhstan) [43.25° N; 76.92° E] in 1999–2013. The time interval under study covers different solar activity levels. We have shown that at F10.7>175 in summer and at F10.7>225 in winter there is a saturation effect, i.e. with increasing solar activity level values of I(t) do not increase. The observed nonlinear relationship between the total electron content of the ionosphere and the solar radiation flux F10.7 results from the nonlinear relationship between the solar ultraviolet radiation and the solar radiation flux.
 The study of the variability of the mid-latitude ionosphere parameters during different solar and geomagnetic activity levels has shown that the standard deviation ç(x) and average shift Xave of I(t) and Nm fluctuations relative to the quiet level weakly depend on solar activity, but greatly depend on geomagnetic activity when F10.7<100.

How Do Ultra‐Low Frequency Waves Access the Inner Magnetosphere During Geomagnetic Storms?

AbstractWave‐particle interactions play a key role in radiation belt dynamics. Traditionally, ultra‐low frequency (ULF) wave‐particle interaction is parameterized statistically by a small number of controlling factors for given solar wind driving conditions or geomagnetic activity levels. Here we investigate solar wind driving of ULF wave power and the role of the magnetosphere in screening that power from penetrating deep into the inner magnetosphere. We demonstrate that during enhanced ring current intensity, the Alfvén continuum plummets, allowing lower frequency waves to penetrate deeper into the magnetosphere than during quiet periods. With this penetration, ULF wave power is able to accumulate closer to the Earth than characterized by statistical models. During periods of enhanced solar wind driving such as coronal mass ejection driven storms, where ring current intensities maximize, the observed penetration provides a simple physics‐based reason for why storm time ULF wave power is different compared to nonstorm time waves.

Ion Pressure at the Auroral Precipitation Boundaries and Its Relationship with the Solar Wind Dynamic Pressure

The data from the DMSP F7 satellite for 1986 are used to study the behavior of ion pressure at the boundaries of auroral precipitation. The study is based on 7489 satellite passages in the nightside sector of the auroral zone, including over 5000 passages in the 2100–2400 MLT sector. Ion pressure is determined as the average for 5 s of observations, which corresponds to a distance of ~40 km in the satellite trajectory portions adjacent to the precipitation boundaries. It is shown that the plasma pressure at the boundaries of auroral precipitation almost linearly increases at all levels of magnetic activity with an increase in the solar wind dynamic pressure (Psw). The pressure distribution as a function of MLT indicates that the precipitation boundaries, including the isotropy boundary, are not isobars, even at a low level of geomagnetic activity. The plasma pressure is maximal in the 22–24 MLT sector and decreases both in the morning and evening sides. The latitudinal position of the precipitation boundaries and the plasma pressure at the boundaries are found during all the phases of a typical substorm with an intensity of AL = –410 nT at its maximum. The latitudinal profile of ion pressure is constructed with respect to the isotropy boundary (IB) at the beginning of substorm. It is shown that, with an increase in dynamic pressure, there is not only a substantial increase in plasma pressure at the auroral precipitation boundaries but also a change in the latitudinal position of the boundaries themselves. As Psw grows, the latitude of the polarward boundary of the oval increases, while that of the equatorward boundary decreases. Despite the considerable expansion of the precipitation region, the latitudinal pressure gradient between the oval boundaries increases, even during quiet periods (average AL = –18 nT, IMF Bz = +1.4 nT) without any disturbances in the auroral zone, by approximately a factor of 2, from 0.06 to 0.12 nPa/deg.

Charging of Geostationary Satellite Electro-L2 in the Earth Shadow

Magnetosphere plasma electron and proton fluxes in the energy range 0.04–11.3 keV were measured using electrostatic spectrometers established onboard the geostationary Electro-L2 spacecraft (point of standing 76° EL). Measurements were done in the lit orbit segments and in the Earth shadow during the periods of vernal and autumn equinox in 2016–2017. In terms of the observation data, fluxes, and parameters of the plasma particles for different geomagnetic activity levels and potentials of the spacecraft metal base were determined. The measured values of the negative spacecraft metal base potential achieve 5–10 kV in the Earth shadow. Interpretation of the measurement results was done using the results of the spacecraft charging modeling obtained with the COULOMB-2 program package. Electric field gauges (EFGs) and electrostatic discharge (ESD) gauges were established on the spacecraft surface as well. The electrostatic spectrometers data and the COULOMB-2 results coincide with the EFGs data. ESDs were registered onboard the spacecraft during the spacecraft entrance into the Earth shadow and exit from the shadow.

Field‐Aligned and Horizontal Currents in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres From the Swarm Satellite

AbstractWe present statistical investigation of the high‐latitude ionospheric current systems in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) and Southern Hemisphere (SH) during low (Kp < 2) and high (Kp ≥ 2) geomagnetic activity levels. Nearly 4 years of vector magnetic field measurements are analyzed from the two parallel flying Swarm A and C satellites using the spherical elementary current system method. The ionospheric horizontal and field‐aligned currents (FACs) for each auroral oval crossing are calculated. The distributions of the mean values of FACs as well as the horizontal curl‐free and divergence‐free currents in magnetic latitude and magnetic local time for each hemisphere and activity level are presented. To estimate the NH/SH current ratios for the two activity levels, we remove seasonal bias in the number of samples and in the Kp distribution by bootstrap resampling. This is done in such a manner that there are equal number of samples from each season in each Kp bin. We find that for the low activity level, the currents in the NH are stronger than in the SH by 12±4% for FAC, 9±2% for the horizontal curl‐free current, and 8±2% for the horizontal divergence‐free current. During the high activity level, the hemispheric differences are not statistically significant. This suggests that the local ionospheric conditions, such as magnetic field strength or daily variations in insolation, may be important and play a larger role during quiet than disturbed periods. This issue must be studied further.

Global Dynamic Model of Critical Frequency of the Ionospheric F2 Layer

A global dynamic model of the F2 layer of the ionosphere GDMF2 is designed to calculate foF2 in both quiet and geomagnetically disturbed conditions. The term “dynamic model” implies that the change in foF2 at middle, subauroral, and auroral latitudes depends on the current level of geomagnetic activity with consideration of the prehistory of its development. A distinctive feature of this model is the empirical approach used to create the median (background) model of foF2 for quiet geomagnetic conditions and a number of aeronomic corrections to it related to the formation of the main ionospheric trough and the auroral peak of electron density, as well as changes in the temperature and composition of the thermosphere. All of these corrections depend on the changes in the heliogeophysical conditions. The global dynamic foF2 model demonstrates considerable improvement as compared to IRI-2016 (with the option ‘STORM = ON’) by on average of ~16% at high and middle and ~7% at equatorial latitudes.

Characteristics of Relativistic Microburst Intensity From SAMPEX Observations

AbstractRelativistic electron microbursts are an important electron loss process from the radiation belts into the atmosphere. These precipitation events have been shown to significantly impact the radiation belt fluxes and atmospheric chemistry. In this study we address a lack of knowledge about the relativistic microburst intensity using measurements of 21,746 microbursts from the Solar Anomalous Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX). We find that the relativistic microburst intensity increases as we move inward in L, with a higher proportion of low‐intensity microbursts (<2,250 [MeV cm2 sr s]−1) in the 03–11 magnetic local time region. The mean microburst intensity increases by a factor of 1.7 as the geomagnetic activity level increases and the proportion of high‐intensity relativistic microbursts (>2,250 [MeV cm2 sr s]−1) in the 03–11 magnetic local time region increases as geomagnetic activity increases, consistent with changes in the whistler mode chorus wave activity. Comparisons between relativistic microburst properties and trapped fluxes suggest that the microburst intensities are not limited by the trapped flux present alongside the scattering processes. However, microburst activity appears to correspond to the changing trapped flux; more microbursts occur when the trapped fluxes are enhancing, suggesting that microbursts are linked to processes causing the increased trapped fluxes. Finally, modeling of the impact of a published microburst spectra on a flux tube shows that microbursts are capable of depleting <500‐keV electrons within 1 hr and depleting higher‐energy electrons in 1–23 hr.