Free-stream Turbulence Intensity Levels Research Articles

Flow Characterization of the UTSA Hypersonic Ludwieg Tube

The characterization of a hypersonic impulse facility is performed using a variety of methods including Pitot probe scans, particle image velocimetry, and schlieren imaging to verify properties such as the velocity, Mach number, wall boundary layer thickness, and freestream turbulence intensity levels. The experimental results are compared to the numerical simulations of the facility performed with Ansys Fluent to compare the design and operational conditions. The presentation of results in this manuscript is prefaced by a description of the facility and its capabilities. The UTSA Ludwieg tube facility can produce a hypersonic freestream flow with a Mach number of 7.2 ± 0.2 and unit Reynolds numbers of up to 200 × 106 m−1. The Pitot probe profiles of the 203-mm-square test section indicate a 152 ± 10 mm square freestream core with turbulence intensity values ranging from 1% to 2%. Schlieren imaging of the oblique shockwaves on a 15° wedge model provided an alternate means of verifying the Mach number. Particle image velocimetry and previous molecular tagging velocimetry results showed a good agreement with the Pitot probe data and numerical simulations in the key parameters including freestream velocity, wall boundary layer velocity profiles, and wall boundary layer thickness.

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) of the Wake Flow Field of a Model Wind Turbine and a Porous Disc under Different Freestream Turbulence Intensity Conditions

The effects of freestream turbulence intensity on the wake development of a model wind turbine and a porous disc are investigated through Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) analysis. The capability of porous discs for reproducing far-wake characteristics of a model wind turbine is examined through coherent structures both in the near-wake and far-wake regions. Instantaneous velocity fields are obtained through wake measurements using two-dimensional two-component particle image velocimetry (2D2C PIV). These velocity fields are considered snapshots of the spatial domain. Results show inherent differences between coherent structures of a model wind turbine and porous disc in the near-wake region, especially when the freestream turbulent intensity level is low. However, these differences reduce, and coherent structures become more comparable when the freestream turbulence intensity level is higher. It is shown that the first five streamwise components of POD modes are paired for the model wind turbine and the porous disc cases under high freestream turbulence intensity conditions in the far-wake region.

Effect of the free-stream turbulence on the bi-modal wake dynamics of square-back bluff body

The effect of a free-stream turbulence intensity level on the wake dynamics of a square-back Ahmed body is modeled using the improved delayed detached eddy simulation at Re=9.6×104. The center of pressure, pressure gradient on the base surface, and the barycenter of the momentum deficit on the wake plane are analyzed to characterize the wake bi-modality dynamics. Given that different flow dynamics have different dominant frequencies, the spectral proper orthogonal decomposition is utilized to separate the wake bi-stability, pumping motion of the whole recirculation region, the Von Kármán vortex shedding and the shear layer instability. The results show that entrainment of the oncoming flow into the wake is enhanced, the vorticity thickness is thickened and the length of the wake recirculation region is decreased with the increasing free-stream turbulence, resulting in a lower base suction pressure and a higher level of shear stress. The frequency of the pumping motion is increased with the increase in the oncoming turbulence intensity, while the frequency of Von Kármán vortex shedding is irrespective of the level of the background turbulence. Though the correlation between the switching rate and the oncoming turbulence intensity cannot be put forward due to the relatively short numerical simulation time compared with the wind tunnel experiment, it is still known that the turbulence intensity has a positive effect on the wake bi-stability switching.

Effects of freestream turbulence on the wake growth rate of a model wind turbine and a porous disc

This study presents the results of an experimental investigation that focuses on quantifying the differences between the spreading rates of a model wind turbine wake and a porous disc wake at different freestream turbulence intensity levels. Two-dimensional two-component particle image velocimetry (2D2C PIV) measurements are performed within the wakes of a model wind turbine and a porous disc (up to 7D downstream) of the same diameter and a matching thrust coefficient. The wind turbine is operated at a Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) of 2 in order to have matching thrust coefficient conditions for a consistent wake comparison. The results show that the mean wake flow field (both near and far wake) is significantly different for the wind turbine compared to the porous disc even if they are operating at similar, high or low, freestream turbulence levels. The wake of the wind turbine recovers much faster than that of a porous disc with a matching thrust coefficient especially in the far wake region at both low and high freestream turbulence levels. On the other hand, the data shows that the far wake of the turbine operating at low freestream turbulence is very similar to that of the disc operating at high freestream turbulence. This suggests caution and stresses the importance in choosing the freestream turbulence intensity level when using porous discs to represent wind turbines in wind tunnel studies.

On the receptivity of low-pressure turbine blades to external disturbances

In the present work, the laminar–turbulent transition of the flow evolving around a low-pressure turbine blade has been investigated. Direct numerical simulations have been carried out for two different free stream turbulence intensity (FSTI) levels to investigate the role of free stream oscillations on the evolution of the blade boundary layer. Emphasis is placed on identifying the mechanisms driving the formation and breakup of coherent structures in the high FSTI case and how these processes are affected by the leading-edge receptivity and/or by the continuous forcing in the blade passage. Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) has been adopted to provide a clear statistical representation of the shape of the structures. Extended POD projections provided temporal and spanwise correlations that allowed us to identify dominant temporal structures and spanwise wavelengths in the transition process. The extended POD analysis shows that the structures on the pressure side are not related to what happens at the leading edge. The results on the suction side show that the modes defining the leading edge and the passage bases correlate with coherent structures responsible for the transition. The most energetic mode of the passage basis is strongly related to the most amplified wavelength in the boundary layer and breakup events leading to transition. Modes with a smaller spanwise wavelength belong to the band predicted by optimal disturbance theory, they amplify with a smaller gain in the rear suction side, and they show the highest degree of correlation between the passage region and the rear suction side.

Statistical characterization of free-stream turbulence induced transition under variable Reynolds number, free-stream turbulence, and pressure gradient

In this work, the free-stream turbulence (FST) induced transition of a flat plate boundary layer is studied using particle image velocimetry (PIV) under variable Reynolds number (Re), FST intensity, and adverse pressure gradient (APG). Overall, 10 different flow conditions were tested concerning the variation of these parameters. The streak spacing and the probability density function (PDF) of turbulent spot nucleation are computed for all cases. The streak spacing is shown to be constant in the transition region once scaled with the turbulent displacement and momentum thickness, with resulting values of around 3 and 5, respectively. Nucleation events are shown to occur near the position where the dimensionless streak spacing reaches such constant values. The streamwise position where most turbulent spots are formed is strongly influenced by the FST intensity level. Additionally, the PDF of spot nucleation becomes narrower with increase in the APG, while FST has the opposite effect. A common distribution of all the PDFs is provided as a function of a similarity variable accounting for the streak spacing, the shape factor of the boundary layer, and the FST intensity.

Inspection of structures interaction in laminar separation bubbles with extended proper orthogonal decomposition applied to multi-plane particle image velocimetry data

This work reports the application of an extended proper orthogonal decomposition (E-POD) procedure to multi-plane particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements describing the evolution of laminar separation bubbles (LSBs). Measurements were performed over a flat plate installed between adjustable end-walls providing a prescribed adverse pressure gradient for two Reynolds numbers (Re = 70 000, 150 000) and free-stream turbulence intensity levels (Tu = 1.5%, 2.5%). A wall-normal and two wall-parallel measuring planes located at different distance from the wall were considered. POD was applied to the entire PIV planes as well as on their sub-domains, showing the main flow features occurring in the different regions of the LSB. Then, the application of E-POD on different plane partitions revealed the existing correlation between the main dynamics observed in the forward part of the bubble and the breakup events occurring in the reattachment region. The E-POD modes computed in the breakup region resemble streaky structures when PIV snapshots are projected onto the POD eigenvectors of the near wall plane. Otherwise, Kelvin–Helmholtz rolls dominate the E-POD modes obtained by projection of the snapshot matrices on the basis computed in the plane located far from the wall. The main scales of the coherent structures highlighted by the E-POD modes were also characterized by means of the streamwise and spanwise autocorrelation functions of E-POD filtered fields. Data in this work clearly highlight the similarity properties of the main flow features observed in LSBs once scaled with the momentum thickness of the boundary layer at the separation position.

A two-equation local-correlation-based laminar-turbulent transition modeling scheme for external aerodynamics

A local-correlation-based laminar-turbulent transition model has been developed for external aerodynamic problems and coupled with the Spalart-Allmaras (S−A) turbulence model. This laminar-turbulent transition modeling scheme is then termed as the γ−SA model. It has been validated against a series of two- and three-dimensional test cases with a relatively wide range of Reynolds numbers and free-stream turbulence intensity levels. Results show that the γ−SA model can give accurate transition-onset-location predictions, as well as more accurate predictions on the force coefficients than the underlying S−A turbulence model at various angles of attack. Comparison with the classic SST−γ−Reθ transition model shows that the γ−SA model can achieve comparable results, with the expect of less time or memory consumption, as the γ−SA model has two equations fewer than the former one. With a newly proposed local-farfield mixed turbulence intensity strategy, the turbulence intensity on the inlet or farfield boundary can be conveniently set directly with the value tested for the wind tunnel or the value as expected, while achieving local turbulence intensity variation. Moreover, the γ−SA model employs only local variables, which makes it totally modern-CFD-compatible and very appropriate for large-scale parallel running using unstructured grids. In the future, it can be modified into a robust and efficient DES-type model with the consideration of transition process.

Evaluation of Turbulent Spot Production Rate in Boundary Layers Under Variable Pressure Gradients for Gas Turbine Applications

Abstract The paper presents several results from an experimental data base on transitional boundary layers developing on a flat plate installed within a variable area opening endwall channel. Measurements have been carried out by means of time-resolved particle image velocimetry (PIV). The overall test matrix spans three Reynolds numbers, four freestream turbulence intensity levels, and four different flow pressure gradients. For each condition, 16,000 instantaneous flow fields have been acquired in order to obtain high statistical accuracy. The flow parameters have been varied in order to provide a gradual shift of the mode of transition from a by-pass process to separated flow transition. In order to quantify the influence of the flow parameter variation on the boundary layer transition process, the transition onset and end positions, and the turbulent spot production rate have been evaluated with a wavelet-based intermittency detection technique for every condition exhibiting a complete transition process. The by-pass transition mode has the longest transition length that decreases with increasing the Reynolds number. The transition length of the separated flow case is smaller than the by-pass one, and the variation of the flow parameters has a similar impact. The variation of the inlet turbulence intensity has a small influence on this parameter except for the condition at the highest turbulence intensity that always shows the lowest turbulent spot production rate because a by-pass type transition occurs. This large amount of data has been used to develop new correlations used to predict the spot production rate and the transition length in attached and separated flows.

Detection of Flow-Regime Transitions Using Dynamic Mode Decomposition and Moving Horizon Estimation

The spatial and time behaviors of fluid flows at different Reynolds numbers and free-stream turbulence intensity levels are studied by combining dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) and moving horizon estimation to detect flow-regime transitions. In more detail, the norm of residuals provided by DMD when processing successive snapshots of the flow velocity field shows a trend that is identified by means of a moving horizon estimator based on a switching model. This allows detecting the change from stable to unstable flow regimes, which in turn enables to extract modes, frequencies, and growth rates of complex structures such as vortices, characterizing the fluid flow in the spatial and temporal domains. Different cases of experimental measurements given by a particle image velocimetry are analyzed to recognize the complexity of the underlying flow physics, while showing the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Negative skin friction during transition in a zero-pressure-gradient flat-plate boundary layer and in pipe flows with slip and no-slip boundary conditions

In searching for the mechanisms of boundary layer bypass transition, Schubauer & Klebanoff (NACA-TR-1289, 1956) conducted an extensive search for negative skin-friction events during the laminar-to-turbulent transition in a zero-pressure-gradient, smooth flat-plate boundary layer (ZPGSFPBL) under a wide range of free-stream turbulence intensity levels. They concluded that no evidence of incipient flow separation could be found in any part of the transition region. Although it has been known that extremely rare backflow events can occur in a fully turbulent ZPGSFPBL and in fully developed turbulent pipe flow, the Schubauer–Klebanoff conclusion regarding the total absence of negative skin friction in ZPGSFPBL transition has remained unchallenged over the past six decades. Here we report our discovery of negative skin-friction events during the bypass transition in an extensively researched representative ZPGSFPBL case, and in pipe flows with no-slip and slip boundary conditions under circumferential mode inlet disturbance, respectively. The peak probability of such events is located in the late stage of transition between the streamwise stations where the minimum and maximum mean skin friction are attained. The magnitude of the peak probability is substantially larger than the corresponding probability in the downstream fully turbulent region: in the case of no-slip pipe flow, the difference is two orders of magnitude and is primarily due to an enhanced number density of the backflow events coupled with a notable increase in the wall footprint size of such events. For both the boundary layer and pipe flows considered here, and in both the transitional and fully turbulent regions, the incipient negative skin friction is found, through instantaneous flow visualization and conditional averaging, to be induced by the head element of a reverse hairpin vortex.

On the Influence of High Turbulence on the Convective Heat Flux on the High-Pressure Turbine Vane LS89

High-pressure turbine vanes and blades are subjected to a turbulent combustor flow affecting the heat transfer and boundary layer transition, hence, the temperature distribution. The accurate prediction of the temperature distribution is crucial for a reliable design and cooling implementation. Engine-representative measurements are hence mandatory for improving design tools. Recently, convective heat transfer measurements were conducted on a high-pressure turbine inlet guide vane (VKI LS89 airfoil) in the Isentropic Compression Tube (CT-2) facility at the von Karman Institute. This contribution focuses on the effect of high freestream turbulence generated by a new turbulence grid allowing a range of turbulence intensities in excess of 10% with representative length scales of the order of 1–2 cm. Three cases with varying turbulence levels are discussed in this paper. The different flow conditions are exit isentropic Mach numbers of 0.70–0.97, Reynolds numbers of 0.53 × 106 and 1.15 × 106 and a constant temperature ratio equal to 1.36. The heat transfer distributions along the vane suction side indicate a clear link between boundary layer transition and the stream-wise pressure gradients even at high levels of freestream turbulence intensity. Differences are put in evidence in the dynamics of the transition development. Future developments will focus also on the contribution of the other flow parameters under high turbulence. Heat transfer predictions from the boundary layer code TEXSTAN and Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes code elsA (ensemble logiciel pour la simulation en Aérodynamique) are additionally compared to the experiments. Inherent difficulties associated with high turbulence modelling are clear from this early numerical work.

Dynamic mode decomposition for the inspection of three-regime separated transitional boundary layers using a least squares method

Transitional boundary layers undergoing separated flow transition for different free stream turbulence intensity levels and Reynolds numbers have been inspected by applying dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) to time-resolved particle image velocimetry data. The identification of the unstable modes responsible for transition suffers from nonlinear effects if the whole dataset is considered for the construction of the snapshot matrix underlying the flow evolution. To overcome this limit, piecewise linear models aimed at the identification of the different regimes in the entire transition process are proposed. In particular, the flow is initially laminar (i.e., stable), it becomes unstable due to transition, and once transition is completed, the fully turbulent condition leads the boundary layer to a stable regime. The norm of the residuals resulting from the application of DMD on a variable streamwise extension of the dataset shows a trend that is associated with the variation of regime. This trend is analyzed by means of the least squares method, which allows identifying the change in the regime with stable, unstable, and turbulent behaviors. The validity of this procedure is proved by comparing it with previously published results. Moreover, since the DMD is applied to limited temporal snapshots, it provides a temporal resolution of growth rate and positions of switch between the boundary layer states. Such information is used to extract from the big dataset under analysis the time sequences characterized by the largest growth rate, hence quickly highlighting the flow physics driving transition.

An accurate data base on laminar-to-turbulent transition in variable pressure gradient flows

An experimental data base on attached and separated-flow transitional boundary layers, under various levels of free-stream turbulence, Reynolds number and pressure gradient has been composed, with the aim of providing high-accuracy data and boundary conditions for development and testing of laminar-to-turbulent transition models. Experiments were carried out on the boundary layer developing on a flat plate installed within a channel with a variable opening angle. The test section imposes acceleration to the boundary layer followed by deceleration, which can be varied. Time Resolved Particle Image Velocimetry (TR-PIV) and Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) data have been acquired on the boundary layer evolution, as well as the free-stream properties in terms of mean velocity and fluctuating velocity components. The overall test matrix spans 3 Reynolds numbers (70,000;150,000;220,000), 4 free-stream turbulence intensity levels (Tu=1.5;2.5;3.5;5%) and 4 pressure gradients (opening angle α=0;5;9;12deg). This large variation of flow parameters allows a gradual shift of the mode of transition from a bypass process in attached flow, occurring with zero (Blasius like) and mild adverse pressure gradients at high free-stream turbulence, to separated-flow transition, occurring with low Reynolds number, low free-stream turbulence intensity and elevated adverse pressure gradient.

Investigation of Thermal Effect on Bypass Transition on a High-Pressure Turbine Guide Vane

The role of gas-to-wall temperature ratio on bypass transition along a highly loaded turbine guide vane is investigated through time-resolved heat flux measurements for different flow conditions. The tests are conducted in the von Karman Institute (VKI) isentropic compression tube (CT-2) facility. High response thin films mounted on the vane (VKI LS89 airfoil) coupled with analog circuits are used for the heat flux measurements. The first detectable wall heat flux fluctuations denote the onset of transition which is also evaluated by both the heat transfer coefficient and the intermittency factor distributions along the suction side. The exit Mach number is kept constant during each test by means of a downstream sonic throat while the gas-to-wall temperature ratio is varied from 1.14 to 1.51 by changing the inlet gas temperature. Four test cases are considered for different exit Mach numbers (0.52 and 0.86) and freestream turbulence intensity levels (0.8% and 5.3%) while the isentropic exit chord Reynolds number is maintained at 106. In the present test campaign, the length and the evolution of the phenomenon indicate a measurable effect of the gas-to-wall temperature ratio for test cases with mild pressure gradients.

Correlations for the Prediction of Intermittency and Turbulent Spot Production Rate in Separated Flows

Experimental data describing laminar separation bubbles developing under strong adverse pressure gradients, typical of ultra-high-lift turbine blades, have been analyzed to define empirical correlations able to predict the main features of the separated flow transition. Tests have been performed for three different Reynolds numbers and three different free-stream turbulence intensity levels. For each condition, around 4000 particle image velocimetry (PIV) snapshots have been acquired. A wavelet-based intermittency detection technique, able to identify the large scale vortices shed as a consequence of the separation, has been applied to the large amount of data to efficiently compute the intermittency function for the different conditions. The transition onset and end positions, as well as the turbulent spot production rate, are evaluated. Thanks to the recent advancements in the understanding on the role played by Reynolds number and free-stream turbulence intensity on the dynamics leading to transition in separated flows, guest functions are proposed in the paper to fit the data. The proposed functions are able to mimic the effects of Reynolds number and free-stream turbulence intensity level on the receptivity process of the boundary layer in the attached part, on the disturbance exponential growth rate observed in the linear stability region of the separated shear layer, as well as on the nonlinear later stage of completing transition. Once identified the structure of the correlation functions, a fitting process with own and literature data allowed us to calibrate the unknown constants. Results reported in the paper show the ability of the proposed correlations to adequately predict the transition process in the case of separated flows. The correlation for the spot production rate here proposed extends the correlations proposed in literature for attached (by-pass like) transition process, and could be used in γ–Reϑ codes, where the spot production rate appears as a source term in the intermittency function transport equation.

Experimental investigation of wall thickness and hole shape variation effects on full-coverage film cooling performance for a gas turbine vane

The effects of wall thickness and hole shape variation on a full-coverage film cooled turbine vane are investigated in a stationary and linear cascade utilizing the pressure sensitive paint technique. The varied wall thickness produces hole length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) in a range from L/D = 2 to 5, and holes tested include simple angle hole, compound angle hole, and fan-shaped hole. Five rows of holes are provided on the pressure side while three rows of holes are provided on the suction side, with six rows of cylindrical holes drilled on the leading edge to construct showerhead film cooling. The tested blowing ratios for the showerhead, pressure side, and suction side range from 0.25 to 1.5, with a density ratio of 1.5. The freestream Reynolds number is 1.35 × 105, based on the axial chord length and the inlet velocity, with a freestream turbulence intensity level of 3.5% at the cascade inlet. The results indicate that the wall thickness variation produces significant influence on the pressure side film cooling effectiveness, while only marginal effect on the showerhead and suction side film cooling. Also observed is that the fan-shaped hole generates the highest film cooling effectiveness on pressure or suction side. Also discussed is the surface curvature effect, combining with effects of wall thickness and hole shape variations, on the film cooling effectiveness in comparison to the flat-plate data.

Turbulence Intensity Effects on Laminar Separation Bubbles Formed over an Airfoil

The effects of freestream turbulence intensity on the mean topology and transition characteristics of laminar separation bubbles forming over the suction side of a NACA 0018 airfoil are investigated experimentally for angles of attack between 0 and 20 deg, chord Reynolds numbers between 100,000 and 200,000, and freestream turbulence intensities between 0.09 and 2.03%. The results show that increasing freestream turbulence intensity results in earlier transition and reattachment, contributing to an overall decrease in separation bubble length. At lower angles of attack, this is accompanied by a minor decrease in lift, whereas at prestall angles of attack and higher turbulence intensity levels, lift increases and stall is delayed. Spatial amplification rates of disturbances in the separated shear layer are shown to decrease at elevated levels of turbulence intensity, indicating that the earlier transition is attributed solely to the larger initial amplitude of perturbations. At elevated turbulence intensity levels, a broader range of unstable frequencies is detected in the separated shear layer, with the central frequency of the unstable band showing moderate variations with the level of freestream perturbations. The results indicate a change in the transition process at higher freestream turbulence intensity levels, indicative of bypass transition in the boundary layer. The degree of influence of freestream turbulence intensity on the separation bubble is shown to decrease as the chord Reynolds number is increased.

Analysis of the Reynolds stress component production in a laminar separation bubble

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition has been applied to Time-Resolved Particle Image Velocimetry data describing the dynamics of laminar separation bubbles. The mutual orthonormality of the POD modes of the velocity components has been accounted for to separate the contributions to the Reynolds stress tensor due to the different modes, thus to the stress production and the mean flow energy dissipation. The low frequency motion of the separated shear layer, the shedding phenomenon and the formation of finer scales in the rear part of the bubble have been clearly isolated, and their role in the turbulence production identified by means of reduced order models. The low frequency activity observed in the fore part of the separated flow region drives the turbulence production through the normal strain mechanism. Only in the rear part of the bubble the high shear between adjacent vortices establishes the more common shear strain production mechanism, that definitively dominates the transition process. A limited number of modes captures almost the whole process responsible for stress production, even though both Reynolds number and free-stream turbulence intensity levels affect the number of modes involved in the stress generation for different dynamics.

Experimental study of free-stream turbulence induced transition in an adverse pressure gradient

Results from Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) investigations have been discussed in order to characterize the dynamics driving the transition process in a strong adverse pressure gradient condition exposed to high Free Stream Turbulence Intensity (FSTI) level. Measurements have been carried out in the suction side boundary layer of a low pressure turbine cascade. Two orthogonal planes are analyzed in order to study both lift-up mechanisms of low speed streaks (in the wall-normal plane) as well as instability mechanisms (in the wall-parallel plane) leading to the breakdown of streaks, thus transition. Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) has been used to provide the reconstruction of the PIV data highlighting the instability motions as well as the occurrence of wall-normal oriented vortical filaments growing on the flanks of the streaks during their breakdown process. The dynamics characterizing the transition process in this strong adverse pressure gradient condition has been discussed in detail and analogies with recent models developed for flat plate are highlighted. The main streak dimensions (e.g. the spacing and wavelength during breakdown) are also compared with flat plate data reported in the literature. Once made dimensionless with the local boundary layer displacement thickness, the streak dimensions observed in the present case agree well with flat plate ones, making evident the self-similarity properties of the streaky structures irrespective of the strong adverse pressure gradient condition.