Fecal Coliform Levels Research Articles

The Role of Wastewater Treatment Plants in the Environmental Dissemination of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria (ARB) and Resistance Genes (ARG)

This study was conducted to evaluate the influence of wastewater treatment processes on the prevalence of antibiotic resistance fecal coliform (FC) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) of FC. In addition, the occurrence of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) in surface waters receiving wastewater was evaluated. Greater resistance against penicillin (P), colisitin (CT) and ampicillin (AMP) were observed for FC isolated from effluent disinfected by chlorine (71%), than that disinfected by UV (45%). The greatest resistance against six antibiotics was recorded for FC isolates from effluent disinfected by chlorine. The prevalence of tetB and blaSHV was lowest in isolates from chlorine-disinfected effluents. The occurrence of ARG blaSHV was highest in FC isolated from effluent disinfected by UV. A significant correlation was recorded between FC levels in surface waters and the level of bacterial resistance to ampicillin (P SHV in effluents and in surface waters. TetA and tetC were highly prevalent in surface water compared to tetB. The results of the study demonstrate the widespread prevalence of ARB and ARG in wastewater and receiving water bodies. The result indicates that the source of ARB and ARG in surface waters originate from wastewater. Released ARB and ARG may serve as the source of ARG to pathogenic bacteria in surface waters. Disinfection processes may influence the selection of antibiotic resistant patterns of bacteria.

Spatio-temporal analysis of urban changes and surface water quality

The combination of remote sensing techniques and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to measure water quality allows researchers to monitor changes in various water quality parameters over temporal and spatial scales that are not always readily apparent from in situ measurements. This study involves using Landsat images and in situ data within GIS to map urban expansion and its resulting influences on water quality in the Pontchartrain Basin over the last three decades. The Pontchartrain Basin is located in southeast Louisiana and covers an area of 25,000 km2 that encompasses sixteen parishes east of the Mississippi River and four Mississippi Counties. A Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image from 1985 and a Landsat Operational Land Imager (OLI) image from 2015 were processed using the Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) algorithm to map urban expansion. In order to estimate how water quality has changed in the Pontchartrain Basin between 1985 and 2015, in situ water quality data from the Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality was interpolated using Empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK). Comparing urban expansion produced from SAM classification with urban indices, impervious surfaces were better identified and distinguished from other land cover features. The results of this study demonstrated that high levels of fecal coliform were consistent with increased urbanization in water bodies in the Pontchartrain Basin. Phosphorous levels were higher in 2015 compared to 1985 and were at levels high enough to lead to eutrophic conditions. Dissolved oxygen levels were lower near the mouth of the Mississippi river in 2015 than in 1985. The results indicated that urbanization has negative impact on water quality. The geospatial model is recommended to effectively manage and reduce the processing time of large water quality datasets.

Surface Water Quality in Peri-Urban Areas in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania: The Case Of Ng'ombe River

This work made an ecological assessment of the Ng’ombe River based on water chemistry. Ng’ombe River traverses the unplanned and densely populated areas in Dar es Salaam forms and discharges into the Msimbazi River. This particular study sought to identify the pollution levels and their sources. River water-sampling locations were chosen and samples of water were taken from the river and analyzed according to standard analytical procedures. The water quality parameters that were studied include temperature, pH, total suspended solids (TSS), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), phosphate (PO4 3-), total phosphorus (TP), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) and faecal coliform. Interviews were carried out with at least 100 residents to measure their awareness, perception on the river pollution and the importance they place on conserving the River. The study gave an indication of organic and faecal pollution on Ng’ombe River. Bacteriological quality of the River was found to be low, with BOD5 and faecal coliform levels exceeding the permissible limits. The BOD5 ranged from 80 to 190 mg/l and the faecal coliform concentration was between 1200 to 5200 cfu/100ml. The physical water quality was consistently low during rainfall periods, with some parameters exceeding Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) or World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits. Some of the monitored physico-chemical parameters of river includes; Electrical conductivity (EC) which ranged from 1725 to 2950 S/cm; Total suspended solids (TSS) ranged from 80 to 180 mg/l and turbidity from 33 to 200 NTU. Further, the nutrient concentrations were NO3-N, which ranged from 0.80 to 1.71 mg/l, PO4 3- from 0.26 to 0.54mg/l and total phosphorus (TP) from 0.10 to 0.24 mg/l. Generally, water from stations located in unplanned or informal settlements had higher levels of pollutants compared to those from planned or formal settlements. It was also noted that the river pollution increased from upstream to downstream end. There was a clear impact of runoff manifested by the elevation of nutrient concentrations during rainy season. The results show degradation of the water quality of the river by anthropogenic activities in the area with poor solid management and low level of sanitation being significant causes of the pollution. Keywords : Informal settlement, Ng'ombe river, Urban rivers, Water Quality

Assessment of the Potability of Underground Water from a Small Scale Underground Mine: A Case Study

This study sought to investigate the potability of underground water from the Mohammed and Brothers Small Scale Underground Mine in Tarkwa by analysing two samples of the underground water to determine the water’s physico-chemical parameters and the metals concentrations and coliforms in it. The physico-chemical parameters were analysed using Oyster series multi-meter (341350A) and Hydro test HT 1000 photometer. The result showed that the parameters were within the recommended World Health Organisation (WHO) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) limits except for salinity and apparent colour. Analyses for metals and arsenic were conducted using the Varian Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Varian ASS 240 FS). All the metals analysed were within the standards set by WHO and USEPA but the level of arsenic was above limit. The level of total coliforms and faecal coliforms were determined at the Intertek Service Limited, Tarkwa. The result showed that the levels were within the standards set by WHO and USEPA. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the analysed water parameters. High levels of arsenic and salinity in the water renders it unsafe for drinking. Treatment of the water to reduce the arsenic and salinity levels to the standards set by WHO and USEPA will make it suitable for drinking and other domestic purposes. Keywords : Underground Water, Small Scale Underground Mining, Water Quality, Heavy Metals, Gold

Sterol biomarkers and fecal coliforms in a tropical estuary: Seasonal distribution and sources

The Sergipe River estuary has been subjected to a range of anthropogenic activities including food, plastic, textile, ceramic and metallurgical production plants along with domestic sewage inputs, all of which are of environmental concern. In this study, the levels of fecal coliforms (FC) in surface water samples and sterols in superficial sediment samples collected from the Sergipe River estuary were determined. Based on the FC concentrations, 58% of the water samples were considered Water Potentially Unusable (WPU) according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Concentrations of coprostanol ranged from 13 to 1072 ng g−1, indicating a significant input of sewage at some points in the estuary. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that there is no clear correlation between the coprostanol and coliform data, which may be due to the high resistance to degradation of coprostanol in sediments and to recent inputs of sewage at the water sample collection points.

Fecal coliform concentrations in effluent from ultraviolet disinfection units installed in onsite wastewater treatment systems.

Ultraviolet disinfection (UVD) units enhance onsite sewage systems (OSSs) in areas where conventional treatment is limited by site characteristics. Although UVD units are efficacious under testing conditions, few studies have considered their effectiveness when installed. This study used a mixed-methods approach to examine UVD unit effluent quality and determine the association between UV bulb status and fecal coliform levels. Samples from UVD units and pump chambers were tested for bacterial and physiochemical parameters. Field data were supplemented with data from retrospective compliance samples. A multivariate Tobit regression model predicted that the geometric mean (GM) fecal coliform concentration was 122% higher when the UV bulb was deficient than when it was not deficient, adjusted for other OSS deficiencies (95% CI: 36-428, p-value <0.001). The predicted GM fecal coliform concentration in malfunctioning UVD unit effluent (745 CFU/100 mL) exceeded field compliance standards (400 CFU/100 mL), and the odds of exceedance were 7.48 times higher when the UV bulb was deficient, adjusted for other OSS deficiencies (95% CI: 4.03-13.9, p-value <0.001). Despite limitations in the characterization of UV dose, the results validate the importance of UVD units to reduce bacterial loads and the need for further research into their field effectiveness.

Evaluación de la calidad de agua de ríos de colombia usando parámetros físicoquímicos y biológicos

Se analizaron las características físicas, químicas y microbiológicas (coliformes totales, coliformes fecales y macroinvertebrados acuáticos) de diversos ríos de Colombia y se determinó el índice de calidad de agua (IQA) de los ríos estudiados. Se encontraron altos niveles de turbiedad y sólidos disueltos totales (SDT) sugiriendo que el agua de los ríos de Colombia no posee condiciones óptimas para el crecimiento y la reproducción de diversos organismos acuáticos. Además, se encontraron altos niveles de coliformes fecales, asociado con la existencia de vertimientos de aguas residuales, indicando que gran parte del agua de los ríos de Colombia, no es apta para consumo humano. Además el índice de BMWP/Col. correspondió a aguas ligeramente contaminadas y el Índice de calidad de agua (IQA) sugirió un recurso hídrico altamente contaminado, existiendo congruencia entre los dos índices anteriormente mencionados y algunas variables fisicoquímicas y biológicas, que presentaron valores superiores a los permisibles establecidos por la normatividad Colombiana

Water services with independent providers in peri-urban Maputo: Challenges and opportunities for long-term development

Water service delivery to most residents of peri-urban areas of greater Maputo depends largely on alternative service providers, mostly in the form of small-scale independent providers (SSIPs). This paper discusses the present and long-term challenges facing SSIPs in supplying quality water of sufficient quantity in peri-urban Maputo and possible human health risks associated with the consumption of water provided by SSIPs. Extensive water sampling and analyses were conducted to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of water provided by independent providers and the associated human health risks. Borehole pumping tests, the results of which were interpreted using the graphical method of Jacob, were used to evaluate the regional aquifer potential, the long-term impacts of its exploitation and the aquifer vulnerability to external contamination. From the results of borehole pumping tests it was concluded that the present yields are in average 33% lower than estimated safe yields and that larger than present yields therefore can be exploited. The aquifer vulnerability to external contamination (e.g. by E. coli and nitrates) is low, mainly because of low hydraulic loads and the existence of a rather thick (10 to 30 m) sandy unsaturated stratum where bacteria die-off and biological denitrification probably occurs. However, the aquifer vulnerability to sea sea-water intrusion is high. Currently, the health risks posed to consumers relying on services provided by SSIPs are small; even so, 13 out of 35 controlled boreholes had either total coliform or faecal coliform levels higher than the WHO standard. In the long run SSIPs may face more serious water quality problems due either to over-exploitation of the aquifer system or increased hydraulic loads resulting from increased population density.

Improved Microbial Safety of Direct Ozone-Depurated Shellstock Eastern Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) by Superchilled Storage.

The effect of superchilled storage at -1°C on the microbial safety of oyster depurated with 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mg/L ozone was studied for 14 days. Fecal coliforms (4,100–16,000 MPN/100 g), Escherichia coli (1,500–3,650 MPN/100 g), Vibrio cholerae non-O1/non-O139 (13.0–102.0 MPN/g), and Salmonella spp. (2.270–3.035 × 103 CFU/g) were initially present in raw oysters. After 6 h depuration, fecal coliform counts decreased (P < 0.05) to 300, 20 and 20 MPN/100 g for 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mg/L treatments, while a 0.3 log decrease in control oysters was observed. Initial E. coli counts decreased (P < 0.05) in oysters to 50, 20, and 20 MPN/100 g for 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mg/L treatments, respectively. A 1 log reduction in V. cholerae non-O1/non-139 levels were observed in 0.4 and 0.6 mg/L-treatments after 2 and 4 h depuration. Salmonella spp. was not detected in oyster samples after 6 h depuration in 0.4 and 0.6 mg/L-ozone treatments. Considering the bacterial loads after depuration, at the end of superchilled storage the 0.4 mg/L-ozonated oysters attained lower (P < 0.05) fecal coliform levels (280 MPN/100 g) and E. coli counts in 0.4 and 0.6 mg/L-ozonated oysters (20 and 95 MPN/100 g, respectively). A 2-log decrease in V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 levels on day 5 in 0.4 and 0.6 mg/L-ozonated oysters (< 0.3 MPN/g) was attained. V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 counts in control oysters decreased 1 log on day 9 of superchilled storage. Salmonella spp. was not detected in ozonated and superchilled stored oysters. Levels of fecal coliforms, E. coli, Salmonella spp., and V. cholerae non-O1/non-O139 in non-ozone depurated oyster samples were higher than in control, 0.4 and 0.6 mg/L ozonated oyster samples during superchilled storage. The cumulative mortality rates after 14 days of storage for superchilled oysters (22.2%) was higher (P < 0.05) than 0.6 mg/L O3 (7.2%) and 0.4 mg/L O3 (5.8%) treatments, and control oysters (5.6%). pH values in control oysters decreased significantly (P < 0.05) throughout the storage period but not in oysters of both ozone treatments, indicating no detrimental effects on oyster survival. The results of this study suggest that superchilled storage enables ozonated shellstock oysters (0.4 mg/L-6 h) stored for 9 days to be safe human consumption.

Impact of Changes of Land Use on Water Quality, from Tropical Forest to Anthropogenic Occupation: A Multivariate Approach

Worldwide, it is acknowledged that changes of land use influence water quality; however, in tropical forests, the relationship between land use and water quality is still poorly understood. This study assessed spatial and seasonal variations in water quality, and the relationship between water quality and changes of land use in the Bobos-Nautla River, whose upper course runs across a patch of a tropical cloud forest. Spatial and seasonal variations in water quality and land use were assessed with multivariate tools. A cluster analysis, as well as a Principal Component Analysis (PCA-3D), identified three groups of sites: (1) an upper portion, which showed the best water quality and the broadest natural vegetation coverage; (2) a middle course, with high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations associated with extensive agricultural uses; and (3) a lower course, characterized by the highest levels of total and fecal coliforms, as well as ammonia nitrogen, associated with the highest percentage of urbanization and human settlements. Our findings demonstrate the impact of changes of land use on water quality of rivers running through cloud forests in tropical zones, which are currently endangered ecosystems.

Statistical models of fecal coliform levels in Pacific Northwest estuaries for improved shellfish harvest area closure decision making

There is a substantial need for tools that effectively predict spatial and temporal fecal pollution patterns in estuarine waters. In this study, statistical models of exceedances of shellfish fecal coliform (FC) water quality criteria were developed using a 10-year dataset of FC levels and environmental data. Performance (sensitivity, specificity, and predictive capacity) of five different types of models was tested (MLR regression, Tobit (censored) regression, Firth's binary logistic regression (BLR), classification trees, and mixed-effects regression) for each of three conditionally managed shellfish-harvesting areas in Tillamook Bay, Oregon (USA). The most influential variables were related to precipitation and river stage height in the wet season and wind and tidal-stage in the dry season. Classification tree and Firth's BLR approaches better explained exceedances of shellfish water quality standards than the current closure thresholds. Findings demonstrate the utility of statistical modeling approaches for improved management of shellfish harvesting waters.

The determination of E. coli levels and pathotypes in water sources around Isparta province Turkey.

In this study, a total of 57 water samples were collected over different months around the Isparta region. The levels of total and fecal coliform in these water samples were determined. According to an analysis of the results, although the pollution level of these water sources are not high in terms of their total coliform counts, they cannot be used as drinking water. In the water samples taken from Andık Creek, DarıCreek Dam, and Eğirdir Lake, fecal counts were found to be similar to each other, it is possible to use these waters after refinement. However fecal coliform levels are high in water samples taken from Bezirgan Creek, and these waters cannot be used as drinking water. After the total and fecal coliform counts were determined, the most probable colonies that can be identified to be E. coli were chosen and confirmation tests were performed. In total, 397 colonies were isolated from water samples, and 55 of those were confirmed as E. coli strains. Also, 151 strains were determined to be part of the coliform group. E. coli strains were studied with a real-time PCR to determine some virulence genes. Analysis of the results showed that 29.2% of E. coli strains contained enteropathogenic/enterohemorrhagic E. coli virulence genes, and 14.5% of the isolated E. coli strains contained verotoxigenic E. coli virulence factors. Enteroinvasive E. coli virulence genes were contained in 1.8% of the E. coli strains, and it was found that 54.5% of the isolated E. coli strains contained none of the gene regions investigated.

Evaluación de dos índices de calidad del agua en varios sitios de la quebrada La Central, Pacayas de Alvarado, Costa Rica

La quebrada La Central ubicada en San Martín de Irazú es la corriente que abastece de agua para consumo humano, a tres comunidades del distrito de Pacayas de Alvarado de Cartago. La quebrada actualmente se encuentra rodeada por un entorno en que imperan actividades intensivas de tipo agrícola y ganadero, y con un bajo porcentaje de recursos forestales. Además, el terreno posee una pendiente que favorece la ocurrencia de escorrentías hacia la quebrada en tiempos de lluvia. Todos estos factores afectan negativamente la calidad de la naciente. El objetivo de la investigación fue evaluar la calidad del agua en varios sitios de la quebrada: la naciente, la quebrada abajo, el tanque de captación y la quebrada arriba. La evaluación se llevó a cabo por medio de dos índices de calidad del agua (ICAs): el holandés y el propuesto por Calvo-Brenes, que considera aspectos ambientales y la normativa costarricense. El índice holandés requiere del análisis de tres indicadores de calidad fisicoquímicos, mientras que el segundo evalúa siete indicadores fisicoquímicos y microbiológicos. Se encontró que el índice holandés subvalora la calidad del agua en comparación con el nuevo índice propuesto por Calvo-Brenes. Esta diferencia se debe principalmente a los niveles de nitratos y coliformes fecales que afectan negativamente la calidad de las aguas, indicadores que no son evaluados por el índice holandés. Se concluye que el nuevo índice propuesto evalúa adecuadamente la calidad de las aguas y demostró ser un índice sensitivo a cambios de calidad del agua.

Survey of coastal inland pollution sources and their influence on seawater quality in Doam bay, Korea

Inland pollution sources of Doam bay were investigated from August to October in 2013. A total of 210 sources including rivers, streams, domestic, agricultural and industrial discharge points were identified along the coast, including 32 sources that had outflow. Agricultural sources were the largest inland pollution sources (139, 66.2%). Fecal coliform concentrations were measured. These data were combined with water discharge data to determine daily loads of pollutants discharged from each source into the bay. Fecal coliform concentrations were the highest in domestic discharges. However, they only had slight influence because their discharge volume was small. The most significant pollution source was Tamjin River (St.85) due to large amount of discharge volume. The influence of St.85 reached almost half of Doam bay. Fecal coliform levels of streams increased after rainfall, but decreased overtime. Domestic pollution sources were not affected upon rain event.

Assessment of Bacterial Accumulation and Environmental Factors in Sentinel Oysters and Estuarine Water Quality from the Phang Nga Estuary Area in Thailand.

This study characterized microbiological and chemical contamination of oyster meat and estuarine water in Phang Nga, Thailand. Pooled oyster meats (n = 144), estuarine waters (n = 96) and environmental parameters were collected from March, 2016 to February, 2017, and assessed for levels of total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), Escherichia coli (EC), and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VP), presence of Salmonella and Shigella and levels of heavy metals (Mn, Pb and Cd). The prevalence of TC, FC and EC were in 99.3%, 94.4% and 93.1% of oyster meat and 94.8%, 79.2%, and 78.1% of water, respectively. The average VP levels was 8.5 × 107 most probable number (MPN)/g oyster. Prevalence of Shigella and Salmonella in the pooled oysters were 7.6% and 30.6%, respectively. The dominant Salmonella serovars were Paratyphi B followed by Seremban, and Kentucky. In contrast, the prevalence of Shigella were 27.1%, but Salmonella was not detected in estuarine water. Factors statistically associated with EC accumulation in oyster were level of FC, 7-day average precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, and presence of Salmonella in the sample. The optimal cutoff value of EC to predict Salmonella in oyster was 420 MPN/g. Results indicate this area has relatively safe levels of heavy metals, whereas bacterial contamination was very high for oysters.

Assessment of the quality of SOBO industrial wastewater and its impact on water quality in Nankhaka River

An assessment of the quality of industrial (effluent) from soft drink manufacturer Southern Bottlers (SOBO) factory in Lilongwe was carried out to determine the impact of pollution in Nankhaka River. Both the effluents and the water samples at selected points in the river were analysed for pH, suspended solids (SS), total dissolved solids (TDS), phosphate, nitrates, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and faecal coliform (FC) using standard methods. The levels of SS, TDS, phosphate, BOD and COD with mean values of 111, 803, 4.61, 186 and 570 mg/ℓ respectively, in the SOBO industrial wastewater were outside the Malawi Standard recommended limits for effluents discharged into inland waters. However, the levels of pH (8.29) and nitrates (0.031 mg/ℓ) were within the recommended limits whereas the levels of faecal coliform (42,900 counts /100 mℓ) and DO (2.50 mg/ℓ) were not specified in the standard. The variation in water quality between upstream and downstream parameters was statistically significant (p < 0.05) at 95% confidence level. The results suggest that SOBO effluent pollutes the water in the river rendering it unfit for human consumption. It is therefore recommended that the discharge of poor quality effluents should be discouraged. Authorities should enforce the laws governing the disposal of wastes to protect the lives of the people who use the water in Nankhaka River.

Fate of Pirlimycin and Antibiotic-Resistant Fecal Coliforms in Field Plots Amended with Dairy Manure or Compost during Vegetable Cultivation.

Identification of agricultural practices that mitigate the environmental dissemination of antibiotics is a key need in reducing the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria of human health concern. Here, we aimed to compare the effects of crop (lettuce [ L.] or radish [ L.]), soil amendment type (inorganic fertilizer, raw dairy manure, composted dairy manure, or no amendment), and prior antibiotic use history (no antibiotics during previous lactation cycles vs. manure mixed from cows administered pirlimycin or cephapirin) of manure-derived amendments on the incidence of culturable antibiotic-resistant fecal coliforms in agricultural soils through a controlled field-plot experiment. Antibiotic-resistant culturable fecal coliforms were recoverable from soils across all treatments immediately after application, although persistence throughout the experiment varied by antibiotic class and time. The magnitude of observed coliform counts differed by soil amendment type. Compost-amended soils had the highest levels of cephalosporin-resistant fecal coliforms, regardless of whether the cows from which the manure was derived were administered antibiotics. Samples from control plots or those treated with inorganic fertilizer trended toward lower counts of resistant coliforms, although these differences were not statistically significant. No statistical differences were observed between soils that grew leafy (lettuce) versus rooted (radish) crops. Only pirlimycin was detectable past amendment application in raw manure-amended soils, dissipating 12 to 25% by Day 28. Consequently, no quantifiable correlations between coliform count and antibiotic magnitude could be identified. This study demonstrates that antibiotic-resistant fecal coliforms can become elevated in soils receiving manure-derived amendments, but that a variety of factors likely contribute to their long-term persistence under typical field conditions.

Pre-and post-harvest practices of smallholder farmers in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Microbiological quality and potential market access implications

Increasing demands for “minimally processed” fresh produce create a potential market niche in high-value markets for South African smallholder farmers. Fresh produce not meeting required microbiological quality criteria causes consumer health concerns and therefore limits market access. This study determined selected smallholder farmer pre-and-post-harvest practices and their potential contributions to the microbiological quality of “minimally processed” fresh produce and thus potential implications for market access. Survey results indicated that most smallholder farmers used animal manure as fertilizer (74%) and that their knowledge of potential contamination sources was poor. Microbiological analysis showed that a number of irrigation water samples did not meet WHO recommendations for fecal coliform levels and exceeded the South African standard for E. coli for irrigation water applied to “minimally processed” fresh produce. Lettuce, parsley, carrots, and spinach collected over at least 3-months were frequently of unsatisfactory quality with respect to total coliform (ranging from 130 to 79000 MPN/g) and E. coli levels (ranging from 2.2 to 49 MPN/g) according to South African Department of Health recommendations. While surfaces within the processing chain harbored E. coli, Salmonella spp. was not detected on surfaces, in fresh produce or irrigation water samples analyzed. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns of 155 randomly selected E. coli isolates from fresh produce and irrigation water were determined by using a disk diffusion method, showing high percentages of resistance for streptomycin (95%) and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (32%). In addition, the ability of E. coli isolates from fresh produce to form biofilms was shown. The identification of antibiotic-resistant and biofilm forming E. coli from fresh produce and within the production environment highlights the importance of pre-and post-harvest hygiene practices, especially if smallholder farmers intend on supplying high-value markets.

Microbial Quality of three Imported Fresh Locally Produced Marine Fishes in Al-Faw City, Basrah, Iraq

The present study was conducted to determine microbial quality have been measured in gills and gut tissues in three imported fishes samples obtained from trawl fishing boats in Al-Faw city, Basrah, Iraq. In this study, tissues samples were collected from 80 fish samples of three fresh marine fish species: silver pomfret Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788); Oriental Sole Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) and Yellowfin seabream, Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn,. 1782) were collected from trawl fishing boats of Al-Faw city during period from January 2017 to April 2017. Samples of three marine fish’s species were examined for the fecal coliforms. Level of fecal coliforms was higher on tissues samples of Pampus argenteus were total number of fecal coliform identified were in 18 samples (22.50%) and in Brachirus orientalis fecal coliforms bacteria species were found in 11 samples (13.75%), while the lowest level of fecal coliforms was found in tissues samples of Acanthopagrus latus 4 (5%). To find out pathogenic bacteria culturing technique was used followed by staining for identification of bacterial species. In this study determination of coliforms especially Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella sp., three fecal coliforms Bacteria species were found (E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and Salmonella sp.) in tissues of three fish species samples in this study, E. coli was mostly present specie and it was identified in 16 tissues samples of P. argenteus (20.00%) followed by tissues samples of B. orientalis in 14 samples (17.50%), while were found in 10 tissues samples of A. latus (12.50%).

Assessment of the Potability of Underground Water from a Small Scale Underground Mine: A Case Study

This study sought to investigate the potability of underground water from the Mohammed and Brothers Small Scale Underground Mine in Tarkwa by analysing two samples of the underground water to determine the water’s physico-chemical parameters and the metals concentrations and coliforms in it. The physico-chemical parameters were analysed using Oyster series multi-meter (341350A) and Hydro test HT 1000 photometer. The result showed that the parameters were within the recommended World Health Organisation (WHO) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) limits except for salinity and apparent colour. Analyses for metals and arsenic were conducted using the Varian Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Varian ASS 240 FS). All the metals analysed were within the standards set by WHO and USEPA but the level of arsenic was above limit. The level of total coliforms and faecal coliforms were determined at the Intertek Service Limited, Tarkwa. The result showed that the levels were within the standards set by WHO and USEPA. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the analysed water parameters. High levels of arsenic and salinity in the water renders it unsafe for drinking. Treatment of the water to reduce the arsenic and salinity levels to the standards set by WHO and USEPA will make it suitable for drinking and other domestic purposes. Keywords : Underground Water, Small Scale Underground Mining, Water Quality, Heavy Metals, Gold