Levels In Water Research Articles

PENGARUH JARAK PERTAMBANGAN EMAS SKALA KECIL (PESK) TERHADAP MERKURI DALAM AIR SUNGAI DAN BENTHOS DI KABUPATEN BANDUNG

Small Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) in Indonesia is carried out using amalgamation techniques which produce mercury waste and have the potential to pollute the surrounding environment. Mercury contamination is suspected to have occurred in the Ciherang River. This study aims to analyze mercury levels in river water and the benthos of the Ciherang River with a difference of 0.28 km before mining, 0.51 km after mining and 1.42 km after mining. Water and benthos samples were taken using a water sampler while benthos used an Ekman grab which was then taken to the laboratory and analyzed for mercury levels with a mercury analyzer. The mercury level in Ciherang River water ranges from 0.0002 mg/L – 0.0005 mg/L. While the mercury content in benthos ranges from 0.04 mg/kg – 0.2 mg/kg.

Fabrication of composite membrane with microcrystalline cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass as filler on cellulose acetate based membrane for water containing methylene blue treatment

A composite membrane based on cellulose acetate polymer with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) based filler from lignocellulosic biomass is one of the right solutions to reduce methylene blue (MB) levels in water. MCC has been successfully isolated from water hyacinth, sengon wood, and kapok fiber with an alkalization method. The three MCCs have shown X-ray and FTIR diffraction patterns with characteristic peaks from cellulose and are stable up to 317 °C. Cellulose acetate (CA)/MCC membranes have been prepared using the phase inversion method and characterized by FTIR, tensile strength, contact angle, SEM, and porosity. The characterization results show that the addition of MCC can increase the tensile strength (3.05 N·mm-2), hydrophilicity (52°), and porosity (88 %). The CA/MCC membrane performed better than the neat membrane in separating MB. The composite membrane with MCC from kapok fiber showed optimum performance with increased flux and MB rejection up to 84 L·m−2·h−1 and 99 %, respectively.

Assessment of the feed additive consisting of Enterococcus faeciumDSM 21913, Bifidobacterium animalisDSM 16284 and Ligilactobacillus salivariusDSM 16351 (Biomin® C3) for chickens for fattening, chickens reared for laying and minor poultry species other than laying for the renewal of its authorisation and extension of use in all poultry species for fattening and reared for laying/breeding (Biomin GmbH).

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of the feed additive containing Enterococcus faecium DSM 21913, Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. animalis DSM 16284 and Ligilactobacillus salivarius (formerly Lactobacillus salivarius) DSM 16351 (Biomin® C3) as a zootechnical feed additive (functional group: gut flora stabiliser) in the context of the renewal of the authorisation for chickens for fattening, chickens reared for laying and minor poultry species other than laying. In addition, the applicant requested the extension of use in all poultry species for fattening and reared for laying/breeding. The applicant provided evidence that the additive currently in the market complies with the conditions of the authorisation. There is no new evidence that would lead the Panel to reconsider previous conclusions that the additive is safe for the target species, consumers and the environment under the authorised conditions of use. This conclusion also applies to the target species for which a request for an extension of use is made. The Panel concluded that Biomin® C3 is not irritant to skin or eyes but should be considered as a respiratory sensitiser due to its proteinaceous nature. No conclusions could be drawn on the skin sensitisation potential of the additive. The evaluation of the efficacy is not needed in those species for which an authorisation exists. The Panel considered that the additive is efficacious in all growing poultry species at the same inclusion level of 1 × 108 CFU/kg feed and the equivalent level in water of 5 × 107 CFU/L.

Shifting paradigms in PFAS resin removal with biomaterial alternatives

BackgroundPer- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals prevalent in various consumer products for their resistance to heat, water, and oil. These "forever chemicals" are environmentally persistent and can accumulate in living organisms, leading to health risks such as cancer and hormone disruption. Environmental concerns stem from their longevity and bioaccumulation potential. Mitigation strategies for PFAS contamination are complex and multifaceted, involving regulatory actions, pollution control, and technological innovations. On the regulatory front, efforts are being made to limit the production and use of certain PFAS, as well as to establish guidelines for acceptable levels in water and soil. From a pollution control perspective, there is a push towards preventing PFAS from entering the environment through improved industrial practices and wastewater treatment processes. Technologically, research focuses on developing effective methods for PFAS removal and destruction, such as advanced filtration systems, adsorbents, and high-temperature incineration. Addressing the PFAS challenge is crucial for environmental protection and public health, necessitating ongoing research and technological development to manage and remove these contaminants. MethodsTraditional approaches to extracting or reducing PFAS resins typically involve chemical treatments that, while effective, come with significant drawbacks. These methods are not only expensive and energy-intensive, but they also pose environmental risks due to the potential release of harmful by-products. As the environmental impact of these conventional methods becomes more apparent, there is an increasing urgency to explore and adopt more sustainable and less harmful alternatives. In the pursuit of such alternatives, our research has explored the possibility of a fundamental change in strategy, advocating for the use of environmentally benign biomaterials in the removal of PFAS resins. This green chemistry approach focuses on harnessing naturally derived polymers, which offer a promising avenue for PFAS mitigation with potentially lower ecological footprints. Specifically, our review has identified several carbohydrate-based polymers that exhibit a strong affinity for PFAS chemicals. Cellulose, the most abundant organic polymer on Earth, along with starch and dextran, has been found to possess qualities conducive to the adsorption and removal of PFAS substances. These materials are not only renewable and biodegradable but also present a cost-effective option compared to their chemical counterparts. Significant findingsOur expanded review aims to further investigate the mechanisms through which these biomaterials interact with PFAS compounds, optimize their application in real-world scenarios, and evaluate the lifecycle impact of such green alternatives. The goal is to develop a sustainable PFAS mitigation methodology that can be readily integrated into existing industrial processes, reducing the reliance on traditional chemical treatments and their associated environmental challenges.

The Influence of Electrode Plate Area in Reducing Turbidity and Color Levels in Peat Water

Peat water generally exhibits characteristics ranging from dark brown to black, with high organic content and a pH range between 3.7 and 5.3. These features pose challenges in meeting clean water quality standards, essential for maintaining human health. Consequently, the treatment of peat water becomes a pressing need to enhance its quality for suitable use. Electrocoagulation has emerged as a widely applied method in peat water treatment. This research aims to evaluate the influence of electrode plate area and contact time in reducing turbidity and color in peat water. The research methodology employed a quasi-experimental design known as the One-Group Pretest-Posttest. Thirty test samples were collected with variations in electrode plate areas of 4 x 30 cm, 5 x 30 cm, and 6 x 30 cm. Contact time was varied within the range of 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 minutes, applying a voltage of 48 volts. The results indicated fluctuations in the increase of turbidity in peat water after the electrocoagulation treatment. A plate area of 6 x 30 cm led to a turbidity increase of 27.33 NTU or approximately 83% after a contact time of 150 minutes. Meanwhile, the color level in peat water decreased by 65 TCU with a 5 x 30 cm electrode plate area after 150 minutes of contact time, achieving an effectiveness of 90% in color reduction. In conclusion, the electrode plate area significantly influences the reduction of turbidity and color in peat water. Although there is no discernible effect of contact time on turbidity levels, prolonged contact time has a significant impact on reducing the color level in peat water.

Development of nano titanium dioxide modified carbon paste electrode for determination of chloramphenicol in vaname shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) pond water by cyclic voltammetry

Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic that has activity against aerobic, anaerobic, and fungal bacteria and is often used in vaname shrimp farming pond water. Behind its usefulness, chloramphenicol has side effects for health, such as aplastic anemia, bone marrow suppression, stomach intestinal disorders, and optical and peripheral neuropathy. This study aims to determine the ability of carbon paste electrodes modified with nano titanium dioxide to detect chloramphenicol levels in vaname shrimp pond water by cyclic voltammetry. This research has successfully made an electrochemical sensor as a nano titanium dioxide-modified carbon paste electrode to detect chloramphenicol in vaname shrimp pond water samples. Nano titanium dioxide used as a modifier in carbon paste electrodes was characterized by XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) and FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared), while the study of electrochemical characteristics using cyclic voltammetry method. The electrochemical sensor that has been made is a nano titanium dioxide-modified carbon paste electrode that can detect chloramphenicol in vaname shrimp pond water using the cyclic voltammetry method.

Evaluation of the heavy metal levels in soil and water from coal mining communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Water and soil from Akwuke, Ngwo and Udi were analyzed for their heavy metal content using the atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). All the well water samples were found to be higher in heavy metal concentration when compared with the WHO permissible limit, except nickel in drinking water. The soil samples in the three communities were found to have lower concentration of Mn, Cr, Pb, Cd, and Ni when compared to the WHO permissible limit in soil. This study has revealed high concentration of manganese, lead, chromium, cadmium and nickel in water samples in the three studied area Akwuke, Ngwo and Udi, all in Enugu State. Though the concentrations of these heavy metals were not high in any of the soil samples, but high concentration of these heavy metals, compared to WHO/FAO in well water was observed, especially in Udi and Ngwo community. Keywords: Heavy metal, levels, soil and water.

Optimization of Siderophore Production in Three Marine Bacterial Isolates along with Their Heavy-Metal Chelation and Seed Germination Potential Determination.

Siderophores are low-molecular-weight and high-affinity molecules produced by bacteria under iron-limited conditions. Due to the low iron (III) (Fe+3) levels in surface waters in the marine environment, microbes produce a variety of siderophores. In the current study, halophilic bacteria Bacillus taeanensis SMI_1, Enterobacter sp., AABM_9, and Pseudomonas mendocina AMPPS_5 were isolated from marine surface water of Kalinga beach, Bay of Bengal (Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India) and were investigated for siderophore production using the Chrome Azurol S (CAS) assay. The effect of various production parameters was also studied. The optimum production of siderophores for SMI_1 was 93.57% siderophore units (SU) (after 48 h of incubation at 30 °C, pH 8, sucrose as carbon source, sodium nitrate as nitrogen source, 0.4% succinic acid), and for AABM_9, it was 87.18 %SU (after 36 h of incubation period at 30 °C, pH 8, in the presence of sucrose, ammonium sulfate, 0.4% succinic acid). The maximum production of siderophores for AMPPS_5 was 91.17 %SU (after 36 h of incubation at 35 °C, pH 8.5, glucose, ammonium sulfate, 0.4% citric acid). The bacterial isolates SMI_1, AABM_9, and AMPPS_5 showed siderophore production at low Fe+3 concentrations of 0.10 µM, 0.01 µM, and 0.01 µM, respectively. The SMI_1 (73.09 %SU) and AMPPS_5 (68.26 %SU) isolates showed siderophore production in the presence of Zn+2 (10 µM), whereas AABM_9 (50.4 %SU) exhibited siderophore production in the presence of Cu+2 (10 µM). Additionally, these bacterial isolates showed better heavy-metal chelation ability and rapid development in seed germination experiments. Based on these results, the isolates of marine-derived bacteria effectively produced the maximum amount of siderophores, which could be employed in a variety of industrial and environmental applications.

Dynamics of nitrous oxide and methane in the southeastern Arabian Sea

This study examined the factors controlling the intra- and inter-seasonal variations of dissolved methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in the southeastern Arabian Sea (SEAS). Time-series measurements of CH4, N2O and allied biogeochemical parameters were carried out during the monthly campaigns in the coastal waters and a seasonal campaign in the shelf waters of the SEAS. The southwest monsoon period (SWM) brought drastic changes in the regional hydrography through the incursion of hypoxic waters due to coastal upwelling, which increased N2O concentrations substantially but reduced CH4 levels. The ranges of N2O and CH4 during the upwelling period were 8–89 nM and 9–165 nM, respectively, and the non-upwelling period was 2–27 nM and 5–271 nM, respectively. The significant positive correlations of N2O with apparent oxygen utilisation (AOU), the sum of dissolved nitrate and nitrite (NO2− + NO3−) and excess N2O (ΔN2O), as well as a negative correlation with dissolved oxygen indicates that nitrification is the major process in this region during the non-upwelling period. In contrast, during SWM, N2O did not correlate with NO2− + NO3−; however, it exhibited a significant negative correlation with dissolved nitrite (under hypoxia), suggesting the possibility of nitrifier-denitrification as an active process during hypoxia. The high (low) levels of CH4 recorded during the oxic spring inter-monsoon (hypoxic during the SWM) period showed a direct dependency on the changes in the benthic community. The high abundance of the adult macrofauna and active bioturbation resulted in high sedimentary CH4 release, which led to enhanced water column CH4 concentrations (17–271 nM) during the spring inter-monsoon period. In addition, the breakdown of methylated organic compounds under nutrient-limited conditions may also support the elevated CH4 levels in surface waters. A low macrofaunal abundance and reduced bioturbation led to a considerable reduction of subsurface CH4 concentrations during hypoxia. Overall, the SEAS is found to be a net source of CH4 and N2O to the atmosphere, with its sea-to-air fluxes ranging from 1.7 to 85.8 μM m−2 d−1 (19.88 ± 22.20 μM m−2 d−1) for N2O and 4–756 μM m−2 d−1(133 ± 158 μM m−2 d−1) for CH4.

Economical-effective purification of brackish water through an integrated capacitive desalination & boron adsorption system

The escalating scarcity of high-quality water for potable, industrial, and agricultural use necessitates innovative methods to augment freshwater supply from unconventional sources. This study primarily aims to lower boron (B) and chloride (Cl−) levels in brackish water to meet water quality standards of B < 0.5 mg/L and Cl− < 250 mg/L. To meet this goal, an innovative adsorbent, OQAS-AC@NGO, was used for boron removal. It combines organosilicon quaternary ammonium chloride (OQAS) modified activated carbon (AC) within a self-assembled nitrogen-doped graphene oxide (NGO) structure. Before boron removal, a capacitive deionization (CDI) system was used, employing OQAS-AC as the anode and COOH-modified AC as the cathode for chloride ion electrosorption. Through this cooperation procedure, the treated water meets the required quality standards while significantly reducing chemical costs by approximately 13.5 times when compared to conventional ion exchange resin methods for adsorbent regeneration. Moreover, the OQAS-AC@NGO adsorbent sustains its efficiency through multiple cycles, outperforming non-assembled N-GO in terms of yield, performance, and water flux. This underscores the cost-effective adsorbent preparation and enhanced water productivity. Economic analysis endorses the integrated CDI & B adsorption approach, advancing both sustainable water treatment processes and practical industrial applications.

Sistem Monitoring Nutrisi dan PH Air pada Tanaman Hidroponik Berbasis Internet of Things (IoT)

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Hydroponics is a soilless cultivation method that relies on water and the fulfillment of plant nutritional needs. Nutrient provision is usually done manually, which can be time-consuming. To improve efficiency, an automated system using sensors and an IoT-based application can be implemented. This system utilizes a TDS sensor, pH sensor, and NodeMCU ESP32 to monitor nutrient and pH levels in water. The values are displayed on an LCD screen and sent to the application. If the nutrient content falls below 700 ppm or the pH falls below 5 or above 8, indicating a nutrient deficiency, the nutrient pump can be remotely activated through the application. The pump stops when the nutrient level reaches 1000 ppm or the pH reaches 8. The system provides TDS and pH readings, which have an average error of 3.16% and 2.87%, respectively. This automated system can be used to reading TDS and pH values to assist in providing nutrients to hydroponic plants.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

Switchable-hydrophilicity solvent-based liquid phase microextraction for determination of brilliant green in water, shellfish, and fish samples

To avoid substances harmful to the environment and humans, reducing residues generated during chemical tests and substituting solvents has attracted much interest from the scientific community. This study introduces an innovative approach, harnessing switchable-hydrophilicity solvent-based liquid phase microextraction to determine brilliant green. The microextraction process is based on the dispersion of a switchable-hydrophilicity solvent (octanoic acid) for the preconcentration of brilliant green. The alternation between these two forms, hydrophobic (immiscible) and hydrophilic (miscible), can be obtained by changing the composition of the solution, where sodium bicarbonate and sulfuric acid were employed. Factors such as pH, sample volume, switchable solvent volume, and acid-base ratio were optimized to obtain the best analytical response for brilliant green preconcentration. The detection limit was 1.4 μg/L, and the enrichment factor was 250. This novel method successfully assessed brilliant green levels in water, shellfish, and fish samples. It emerges as an accessible, cost-effective, and eco-conscious alternative for quantifying brilliant green, aligning seamlessly with the mission to protect the environment and human health.

Bimetallic Pd‐Sn Catalytic Electrodes from Deep Eutectic Solvents for Selective Nitrate Reduction Toward Nitrogen

AbstractNitrate is one of the most widespread water contaminants globally. Nitrate levels in groundwater and surface water can rise to unhealthy levels as a result of nitrogen fertilizer runoff from lawns and farms. This research aims to selectively convert nitrate to gaseous nitrogen using Palladium‐Tin (Pd‐Sn) bimetallic electrodes electrodeposited on stainless‐steel (SS). Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, scanning electron microscope, and X‐ray diffraction are used to analyze the composition, surface morphology, and crystal structure of the electrodes. The XRD analysis reveals that the Pd‐Sn/SS electrode has a crystalline nature when a Pd molar ratio &gt;0.5 while an amorphous phase is detected over a Pd molar ratio (≤0.5). The electrochemical nitrate reduction is carried out in a 0.1 M HClO4 / 8 mM NaNO3 solution for 5 h using electrodes prepared in deep eutectic solvent (DES) system. The Pd0.93Sn0.07/SS electrode shows the best catalytic performance in terms of high nitrate conversion of 97%, N2 selectivity of 88%, and N2 yield of 86% compared to counter electrodes. These findings demonstrate a considerable impact of the electrode preparation process on nitrogen conversion, selectivity, and yield.

Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants in Australia

Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate the Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants in Australia.&#x0D; Methodology: The study adopted a desktop methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library&#x0D; Findings: In the study examining the impact of light intensity on photosynthesis in Australian aquatic plants, key findings emerged. It was evident that light intensity played a crucial role, with higher light levels in shallower waters leading to increased photosynthesis rates. This underscored the significance of light as a primary determinant of photosynthesis in these ecosystems. Additionally, the study highlighted the impressive adaptability of Australian aquatic plants, some of which employed unique photo protective mechanisms to prevent photo inhibition under varying light conditions.&#x0D; Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Theory of Liebig's Law of the Minimum, Theory of The Beer-Lambert Law and Optimal Foraging Theory may be used to anchor future studies on the Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants in Australia. Develop practical guidelines for growers to optimize light conditions for maximum photosynthetic efficiency. Advocate for policies that recognize the significance of aquatic plants in maintaining healthy aquatic ecosystems. Promote the conservation and restoration of natural habitats for aquatic plants, especially in areas threatened by pollution or habitat destruction.&#x0D;

Impact of de-icing salt runoff in spring on bioretention efficiency

Abstract We investigated the effect of de-icing salt in stormwater runoff on bioretention system hydrology and filtration of contaminants. Salt runoffs during the snow melt period were simulated in 20 mesocosms planted with 1 of 3 plant species (Cornus sericea, Juncus effusus and Iris versicolor) or left unplanted, and then watered with semi-synthetic stormwater runoffs supplemented with 4 NaCl concentrations (0, 250, 1,000 or 4,000 mg Cl/L). All bioretention mesocosms, irrespective of treatment, were efficient in reducing water volume, flow and pollution level. There was no phytotoxic effect of NaCl on plants, even at the highest NaCl concentration tested. Water volume reduction and flow rate were influenced by plant species, but salt concentration had no effect. Salt runoffs significantly increased the removal of some metals, such as Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn, but had no effect on nutrient removal. Because snowmelt laden with de-icing salt is of short duration and occurs during plant dormancy, plants in bioretention may be less affected by de-icing salt than previously thought, provided that salinity decreases rapidly to normal levels in the soil water. The long-term effects of de-icing salt and general performance of bioretention should be further studied under full-scale conditions.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) levels in air and surface sea waters along the Antarctic Peninsula

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are widespread worldwide, even reaching polar regions. Among POPs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and their metabolites have been reported scarcely in the Antarctic environment. Here we report the levels of p,p′-DDT, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, and o,p′-DDE in air and water samples collected during austral summer 2009. The levels found ranged from 0.25 to 4.26 pg m−3 in the atmospheric samples while in the water samples ranged from 0.07 to 0.25 pg L−1. These concentrations were within the range of the reported concentrations in the last 20 years in Antarctica. However, the source ratio showed that most of p,p′-DDT comes from fresh applications and Dicofol formulations. The back-trajectories estimated for the air masses revealed that most of the p,p′-DDT came from the continental Antarctic peninsula and surrounding waters. The diffusive exchange direction showed that Antarctic surface waters are the final sink of the studied compounds during the survey period.

Statistical Analysis and Health Risk Assessment: Vegetables Irrigated with Wastewater in Kirri Shamozai, Pakistan.

One of the primary environmental routes through which humans are exposed to metals and may be exposed to health risks is the food chain's contamination with heavy metals. The study observed the risks posed by contaminants in vegetables produced in soil that received wastewater irrigation, as well as their origins and the human health impacts. Eight harmful metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Ni, and Cr) were tested for concentration levels in water, soil, and vegetable samples using analytical techniques and an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The present study investigated the potential health implications associated with the consumption of vegetables irrigated using wastewater containing heavy metals. The results indicated a notable accumulation of heavy metals in plant and soil samples obtained from Kirri Shamozai, Pakistan. In comparison to vegetables cultivated in soil irrigated with fresh water, the concentration levels of heavy metals in vegetables grown on soil irrigated with untreated wastewater were considerably higher at (P ≤ 0.001) and above the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits. The results showed that heavy metals had significantly accumulated in the soil and had permeated into the crops. Heavy metal concentrations in vegetables cultivated on land irrigated with wastewater were more significant than those grown on land irrigated with freshwater. They exceeded US EPA and World Health Organization (WHO) limits. PCA results for Pb, Cu, and Cr are the main issues impacting water quality and health hazards. The PCA results show that the soil has an extensive loading of heavy metals Cd, Ni, and Mn.

Electrochemical Nitrate Reduction: Ammonia Synthesis and the Beyond.

Natural nitrogen cycle has been severely disrupted by anthropogenic activities. The overuse of N-containing fertilizers induces the increase of nitrate level in surface and ground waters, and substantial emission of nitrogen oxides causes heavy air pollution. Nitrogen gas, as the main component of air, has been used for mass ammonia production for over a century, providing enough nutrition for agriculture to support world population increase. In the last decade, researchers have made great efforts to develop ammonia processes under ambient conditions to combat the intensive energy consumption and high carbon emission associated with the Haber-Bosch process. Among different techniques, electrochemical nitrate reduction reaction (NO3RR) can achieve nitrate removal and ammonia generation simultaneously using renewable electricity as the power, and there is an exponential growth of studies in this research direction. Here, a timely and comprehensive review on the important progresses of electrochemical NO3RR, covering the rational design of electrocatalysts, emerging CN coupling reactions, and advanced energy conversion and storage systems is provided. Moreover, future perspectives are proposed to accelerate the industrialized NH3 production and green synthesis of chemicals, leading to a sustainable nitrogen cycle via prosperous N-based electrochemistry.

9. Is total dissolved solids a reliable proxy for chloride and sodium levels in water offered to pigs?

9. Is total dissolved solids a reliable proxy for chloride and sodium levels in water offered to pigs?

Acaricides Application Rates and Residue Levels in Homemade Sprays, Soil and Water from the Southern Ewaso Nyiro River in Kajiado West Sub County, Kajiado County, Kenya

Acaricides used in controlling ectoparasites (ticks) is the most preferred and economical sound conventional mode of tick eradication. The study aimed at determining acaricide application rates and residue levels in the homemade cattle sprays, soils within the spraying sites and water from the nearby southern Ewaso Nyiro River. The livestock drink river water which is used for domestic purposes. Acaricide residues levels analyzed were those used by farmers in for homemade cattle sprays. The cattle sprays and soil samples were collected from ten selected homes spraying sites randomly from 138 willing farmers in the May and November representing wet and dry seasons respectively in 2018. The sprays were collected after farmers prepared them in the usual way before spraying their animals. The livestock farmers’ ways of mixing and application of acaricides after normal preparation was assessed. The different acaricides identified were analysed for active ingredient levels after preparation using Gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry. Water samples were collected from six sites adjacent to the homes where the sprays were prepared since some homes were found to share the same water drawing area. Solvents used were triple distilled for samples extractions. The homemade sprays and water samples were extracted using dichloromethane while Soxhlet method for soil in a mixture of acetone and hexane in the ratio of 1:3. Samples were concentrated using a rotary evaporator and the clean-up through aluminium oxide chromatographic glass column. Refrigerator was used for sample storage while a Hewlett-Packard Agilent Gas chromatography system equipped with a mass selective detector was used for quantification of acaricide residues levels. Out of the nine acaricides reported by farmers through the questionnaire, three namely amitraz, cypermethrin and deltamethrin were detected in the homemade cattle sprays and soil samples. Amitraz levels ranged from 884±25.3 to 12,236±14.54 µg/L, Cypermethrin was at 3,834±80.2 to 11,972±74.0 µg/L with Deltamethrin at 3,879±33.2 to 12,298 ±82.1 µg/L in the dry while amitraz was at 5,430±96.10 to 11,634±107.2 µg/, 8,975± 103.7 to 10,383±562 µg/L for Cypermethrin while Deltamethrin was only used by home 3 at concentration of 4,781± 125.8 µg/L in the wet seasons in homemade cattle sprays. In the soil, acaricides were in the range of 3,129±98.7 to 10,641±144.2 µg/kg for amitraz, 3,041±33.15 to 8,654±141.2 µg/kg, Cypermethrin and 1,341±58.06 to 8,167±16.4 µg/kg Deltamethrin in dry and 3,875±97.3 to 7,905±184.2 µg/kg amitraz, 4,832±86.7 to 8,694±146.9 µg/kg Cypermethrin. Deltamethrin was only used by home 3 at a level of 2,367±76.9 µg/kg in the wet season. The analysis revealed that homemade cattle sprays in the sub-county had low levels of amitraz, cypermethrin and deltamethrin than those recommended by the manufacturers of 50,000-400,000 µg/L, indicating that the acaricides were over diluted leading to the observed tick re-occurrence in Kajiado West Sub County.