Level Of Spinal Cord Injury Research Articles

Comparison of Cardiopulmonary Function and Elbow Muscle Strength according to Difference Levels of Spinal Cord Injury and Type of Sports in National Athletes with Spinal Cord Injury

Comparison of Cardiopulmonary Function and Elbow Muscle Strength according to Difference Levels of Spinal Cord Injury and Type of Sports in National Athletes with Spinal Cord Injury

Nerve Transfer for Restoring Upper Limb Function in Traumatic Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

Introduction: Cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) is a devastating consequence of trauma that leads to disabling loss of upper limb function. Restoration of any upper limb function can improve quality of life, reduce long-term care needs, and is highly rated by affected individuals. Historically, the International Classification of Surgery of the Hand in Tetraplegia (ICHST) has guided the use of tendon transfers in CSCI but there is now renewed interest in the role of nerve transfer. Selective nerve fascicle transfer offers opportunities for greater functional gain with restoration of prehensile grip and maintenance of donor muscle function. We present an evidence-based surgical strategy for restoration of upper limb function using nerve transfer in CSCI. Objectives: Derivation of evidence-based surgical algorithm for restoration of upper limb function in CSCI. Methods: A nonsystematic review of all studies reporting nerve transfer in CSCI available through PubMed was performed. For each level of spinal cord injury, a reconstructive algorithm was constructed considering available donors. The following hierarchy of movement was prioritized: elbow extension, wrist extension, finger flexion, finger extension, and intrinsic function. Results: The reconstructive algorithm derived is summarized below. >C5—Limited donors available. Suggest lateral branch of accessory nerve transfer to long thoracic nerve or phrenic nerve (in cases of phrenic nerve palsy). Achievable outcomes: respiratory independence for ventilator or cough assist. C5*†—Suggest: (1) Axillary nerve fascicle to teres minor transfer to medial or long head of triceps fascicles. (2) Proximal supinator nerve transfer to nerve to extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) fascicles. (3) Finger extensor tenodesis. (4) Nerve to brachialis transfer to fascicles to anterior interosseous nerve (AIN) and pronator teres. Achievable outcomes: active elbow and wrist extension, passive finger extension, active pronation, and finger flexion. C6*†—Suggest: (1) Axillary nerve fascicle to teres minor transfer to medial or long head of triceps fascicles. (2) Nerve branches to supinator transfer to ECRB. (3) Finger extensor tenodesis. (4) Nerve to brachialis transfer to fascicles to AIN and pronator teres. Achievable outcomes: active elbow extension, stronger active wrist and passive finger extension, active pronation, and finger flexion. C7*†—Suggest: (1) Nerve to brachialis transfer to fascicles to AIN and pronator teres. (2) posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) branches to abductor pollicis longus (APL), extensor pollicis brevis (EPB) and extensor indicis proprius (EIP) transfer to deep branch ulnar nerve fascicles. Achievable outcomes: active pronation, finger flexion, and intrinsics. C8*—Suggest: (1) AIN branch to pronator quadratus transfer to deep branch ulnar nerve fascicles. (2) PIN branches to APL, EPB and EIP transfer to deep branch median nerve fascicles. Achievable outcomes: active intrinsics. Conclusion: Nerve transfer for CSCI is an emerging area of upper limb surgery that demonstrates very significant promise. A bespoke surgical strategy tailored to each patient’s level of CSCI and individual needs that is undertaken early during the rehabilitative course will revolutionize functional outcomes for this deserving patient group. *Brachioradialis to flexor pollicis longus (FPL) tendon transfer as necessary. †House intrinsic tenodesis and/or carpometacarpal joint (CMCJ) arthrodesis as necessary.

Inaugural hyperhidrosis revealing syringomyelia in a spinal cord injured men T10 AIS A

MRI has highly changed the assessment of post-traumatic syringomyelia (PTS), roughly estimated at 30% nowadays. Times to onset (TTO) symptoms are random. This case report describes how hyperhidrosis appeared and revealed PTS diagnosis. Mr M., 43-year-old, is rehabilitation inpatient after T10 AIS A spinal cord injury (SCI). Three months after this event, Mr M complains of acute hyperhidrosis crisis always located below the injury, which can occur at any time of the day, particularly when he moves. This symptom comes together with muscular hypertonia as lower limbs triple flexion scheme. Clinical and paraclinical investigations excluded predisposing factors as infectious process, thrombo-embolic disease, osteosynthesis instability. MRI will finally conclude with syringomyelia cavity, although none of the usual syrinx risk factors (absence of surgical treatment for spinal canal injury, cyphosis over 30%) were identified. PTS Always starts from injury location and is initially extra ependymal at dorsal horn basis. It grows following a necrosis of myelomalacia or hematoma resorption and its expansion will be favored by cerebro-spinal fluid flow abnormality. Hyperhidrosis is rarely known as PTS opening symptoms. Most frequent symptoms are pain further increased by movements or closed glottis efforts, changes in the neurological examination, muscular hypertonia increase, autonomic dysreflexia appearance and bladder disorders. In this case, PTS onset was extremely short. It usually appears 15 years on average after SCI, 5 years earlier for patients above 30 years old. Risks factors, such thoracic localization and AIS A scale speeding SPT TTO while incomplete injuries slowing SPT TTO. Hyperhidrosis might be more frequent sign in lower SCI level, blood pressure dysreflexia occur only in higher SCI level (> T6).

Motoneuron Death after Human Spinal Cord Injury.

The severe muscle weakness and atrophy measured after human spinal cord injury (SCI) may relate to chronic muscle denervation due to motoneuron death and/or altered muscle use. The aim of this study was to estimate motoneuron death after traumatic human SCI. The diameter and number of myelinated axons were measured in ventral roots post-mortem because ventral roots contain large diameter (> 7 μm) myelinated axons that typically arise from motoneurons and innervate skeletal muscle. In four cases (SCI levels C7, C8, T4, and L1) involving contusion (n = 3) or laceration (n = 1), there was a significant reduction in the number of large diameter myelinated axons at the lesion epicenter (mean ± standard error [SE]: 45 ± 11% Uninjured), one level above (51 ± 14%), and one (27 ± 12%), two (45 ± 40%), and three (54 ± 23%) levels below the epicenter. Reductions in motoneuron numbers varied by side and case. These deficits result from motoneuron death because the gray matter was destroyed at and near the lesion epicenter. Muscle denervation must ensue. In seven cases, ventral roots at or below the epicenter had large diameter myelinated axons with unusually thin myelin, a sign of incomplete remyelination. The mean ± SE g ratio (axon diameter/fiber diameter) was 0.60 ± 0.01 for axons of all diameters in five above-lesion ventral roots, but increased significantly for large diameter fibers (≥ 12 μm) in three roots at the lesion epicenter. Motoneuron death after human SCI will coarsen muscle force gradation and control, while extensive muscle denervation will stifle activity-based treatments.

Olfactory ensheathing cells but not fibroblasts reduce the duration of autonomic dysreflexia in spinal cord injured rats.

Autonomic dysreflexia is a common complication after high level spinal cord injury and can be life-threatening. We have previously shown that the acute transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells into the lesion site of rats transected at the fourth thoracic spinal cord level reduced autonomic dysreflexia up to 8weeks after spinal cord injury. This beneficial effect was correlated with changes in the morphology of sympathetic preganglionic neurons despite the olfactory cells surviving no longer than 3weeks. Thus the transitory presence of olfactory ensheathing cells at the injury site initiated long-term functional as well as morphological changes in the sympathetic preganglionic neurons. The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate whether olfactory ensheathing cells survive after transplantation within the parenchyma close to sympathetic preganglionic neurons and whether, in this position, they still reduce the duration of autonomic dysreflexia and modulate sympathetic preganglionic neuron morphology. The second aim was to quantify the density of synapses on the somata of sympathetic preganglionic neurons with the hypothesis that the reduction of autonomic dysreflexia requires synaptic changes. As a third aim, we evaluated the cell type-specificity of olfactory ensheathing cells by comparing their effects with a control group transplanted with fibroblasts. Animals transplanted with OECs had a faster recovery from hypertension induced by colorectal distension at 6 and 7weeks but not at 8weeks after T4 spinal cord transection. Olfactory ensheathing cells survived for at least 8weeks and were observed adjacent to sympathetic preganglionic neurons whose overall number of primary dendrites was reduced and the synaptic density on the somata increased, both caudal to the lesion site. Our results showed a long term cell type-specific effects of olfactory ensheathing cells on sympathetic preganglionic neurons morphology and on the synaptic density on their somata, and a transient cell type-specific reduction of autonomic dysreflexia.

Long-Term Training with a Brain-Machine Interface-Based Gait Protocol Induces Partial Neurological Recovery in Paraplegic Patients.

Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) provide a new assistive strategy aimed at restoring mobility in severely paralyzed patients. Yet, no study in animals or in human subjects has indicated that long-term BMI training could induce any type of clinical recovery. Eight chronic (3–13 years) spinal cord injury (SCI) paraplegics were subjected to long-term training (12 months) with a multi-stage BMI-based gait neurorehabilitation paradigm aimed at restoring locomotion. This paradigm combined intense immersive virtual reality training, enriched visual-tactile feedback, and walking with two EEG-controlled robotic actuators, including a custom-designed lower limb exoskeleton capable of delivering tactile feedback to subjects. Following 12 months of training with this paradigm, all eight patients experienced neurological improvements in somatic sensation (pain localization, fine/crude touch, and proprioceptive sensing) in multiple dermatomes. Patients also regained voluntary motor control in key muscles below the SCI level, as measured by EMGs, resulting in marked improvement in their walking index. As a result, 50% of these patients were upgraded to an incomplete paraplegia classification. Neurological recovery was paralleled by the reemergence of lower limb motor imagery at cortical level. We hypothesize that this unprecedented neurological recovery results from both cortical and spinal cord plasticity triggered by long-term BMI usage.

Cardiac Structure and Function in Elite Para-cyclists with Spinal Cord Injury

We sought to explore the association between the spinal cord injury (SCI) level on the cardiac structure and the function observed in elite para-cyclists. Cross-sectional echocardiographic data from 44 elite SCI hand cyclists (39.8 ± 9 yr, 68% male/32% female) stratified by the level of SCI (cervical, N = 9; T1-T5, N = 10; below T5, N = 25) and 19 non-SCI blind/visually impaired (BVI) tandem cyclists (32.4 ± 7 yr, 58% male/42% female) were analyzed before the initiation of international competition. Compared with non-SCI BVI cyclists, cervical SCI para-cyclists were observed with lower indexed left ventricular (LV) mass (99.6 ± 12 vs 125 ± 20 g·m, P = 0.01), posterior wall thickness (4.5 ± 0.3 vs 5.8 ± 0.7 mm·m, P < 0.001), interventricular septal wall thickness (4.8 ± 0.5 vs 5.7 ± 0.7 mm·m; P = 0.03), and left atrial volume (21 ± 3.5 vs 28 ± 7 mL·m; P = 0.02). In multivariable analyses, cervical SCI was independently associated with decreased LV wall thickness [interventricular septum (β = -0.67, P = 0.01), posterior wall (β = -0.98, P = 0.001)], decreased LV mass (β = -21, P < 0.001), and decreased left atrial volume index (β = -6.9, P = 0.001) compared with other levels of SCI and non-SCI BVI cyclists. There were no differences in ventricular function among any of the athlete groups. Compared with para-cyclists with lower levels of SCI, the athletes with cervical SCI demonstrate attenuated cardiac size and concentric LV hypertrophy.

Influence of Previous Comorbidities and Common Complications on Motor Function after Early Surgical Treatment of Patients with Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury.

The influence of complications and comorbidities on the outcome of patients with traumatic spinal cord injury after early surgery is unclear. The aim of the current study was to analyze the influence of previous comorbidities and common complications on motor function outcome of patients with traumatic spinal cord injury if early surgery was performed. All patients with a traumatic spinal cord injury who were initially surgically treated in our hospital in the period from January 2008 to December 2013 were included in this study. Epidemiological data and previous comorbidities (cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, spinal) were documented. A neurological assessment was performed using the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) score. Retrospectively, patients' personal data (age, gender, comorbidities) and clinical data (complications, ASIA score, motor function) were analyzed statistically. A total of 133 patients met the inclusion criteria. The level of spinal cord injury ranged from C3 to L4. Motor function was improved from 51.5 ± 24.8 to 60.1 ± 25.0 (improvement: 25.7%). The most common complications were urinary tract infection and pneumonia. There is a significant relationship between a lack of previous spinal comorbidities and a better outcome in terms of motor function. No other comorbidities or complications showed any effect on motor function outcome. The current study shows that motor function was able to be improved in patients who were given early surgery after a traumatic spinal cord injury. Common complications as well as previous cardiovascular, pulmonary, and metabolic comorbidities do not impair motor function outcome. The final motor function score is reduced if patients have previous spinal comorbidities.

Selected factors affecting the efficiency of wheelchair mobility in individuals with spinal cord injury

Abstract Introduction: Locomotion efficiency levels in individuals with spinal cord injury deal cord injury depend upon the level of spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation of people with spinal cord injury aims to prepare them to function in society in the best possible manner. One of the significant tasks of rehabilitation is to develop the skill of moving in a wheelchair, which becomes the only means of locomotion for most people. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of selected factors such as age, sex, time from the occurrence of the injury, the level of spinal cord injury, participation in Active Rehabilitation camps and the level of physical activity on the efficiency of locomotion in a wheelchair in individuals with spinal cord injury. Material and methods: The study included 55 patients after a complete spinal cord injury (39 males and 16 females using manual wheelchairs), aged 19 to 59. The level of spinal cord injury was assessed on the basis of a subjective classification of ASIA. The efficiency of wheelchair mobility was evaluated using the wheelchair manoeuvring technique test by Tasiemski (evaluation of performance of 14 tasks taking into account architectural barriers). Results: The majority of respondents (n = 28) obtained medium level of the efficiency, 16 participants scored low, while 11 individuals scored high. The highest score which women obtained was the medium level. It was men only (n = 11) who scored high. There was no statistically significant correlation between the efficiency of wheel-chair mobility and the level of spinal cord injury. It was observed that younger individuals and those practising sport daily achieved the best test results. Conclusions: Participants’ age affected their locomotion efficiency in a wheelchair. Females demonstrated lower levels of efficiency wheelchair mobility than their male counterparts. Regular physical activity affected the participants’ efficiency of wheeled mobility significantly.

Ventilation Limits Aerobic Capacity after Functional Electrical Stimulation Row Training in High Spinal Cord Injury.

In the able-bodied, exercise training results in increased ventilatory capacity to meet increased aerobic demands of trained skeletal muscle. However, after spinal cord injury (SCI), peak ventilation can be limited by pulmonary muscle denervation. In fact, peak ventilation may restrict aerobic capacity in direct relation to injury level. Hybrid functional electrical stimulation (FES) exercise training results in increased aerobic capacity and dissociation between aerobic capacity and injury level in those with injuries at T3 and below. However, injuries above T3 have the greatest pulmonary denervation, and ventilatory capacity may restrict the increase in aerobic capacity with hybrid FES training. We assessed relationships among injury level, peak ventilation, and peak aerobic capacity and calculated oxygen uptake efficiency slope during hybrid FES exercise in 12 individuals (1 female) with SCI at level T2 to C4 (injury duration = 0.33-33 yr, age = 20-60 yr), before and after 6 months of FES-row training (FES-RT). Training increased peak aerobic capacity by 12% (P = 0.02) with only a modest increase in peak ventilation (7 of 12 subjects, P = 0.09). Both before and after training, injury level was directly related to peak ventilation (R = 0.48 and 0.43) and peak aerobic capacity (R = 0.70 and 0.55). Before training, the relationship of peak aerobic capacity to peak ventilation was strong (R = 0.62), however, after training, this relationship became almost completely linearized (R = 0.84). In addition, oxygen uptake efficiency slope increased by 11% (P < 0.05) after FES-RT. Despite the ability to increase exercise capacity via hybrid FES exercise, the inability to increase peak ventilation beyond limits set by SCI level in those with high-level injuries (above T3) appears to restrict aerobic capacity.

Adapted sport effect on postural control after spinal cord injury.

Cross-sectional study. The aim of this study was to compare trunk muscle activation during anterior and lateral reach in athletic and sedentary individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) and able-bodied people. University Hospital-UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil. Individuals with complete traumatic SCI and thoracic neurological level were separated into two groups: sedentary (SSCI: n=10) and physically active (PASCI: n=10). The control group (C: n=10) without SCI was assessed. Trunk muscle activation was recorded during reach and grasp tasks. The significant level was set at P<0.05. The control group showed a highest mean activation for left longissimus muscle during all activities (P<0.05). The PASCI group presented significant highest activation for left iliocostalis muscles during all activities, except in the anterior reach task of 90% maximum reach (anterior reach (AR) 75: P=0.02; right lateral reach (RLR) 75: P=0.03; RLR90: P=0.01). The SSCI group presented highest activation for the left iliocostalis during the right lateral reach task of 75 and 90% maximum reach and right iliocostalis during the anterior reach task of 75% maximum reach (AR75: P=0.007; RLR75: P=0.02; RLR90: P=0.03). A different pattern of muscle activation between the control group and the groups with SCI was observed. Our results indicated that sports practice did not affect the trunk muscle activation in people with paraplegia. However, the pattern muscle activation in individuals with SCI is different compared with people without SCI during anterior reach tasks.

Cardiovascular Responses to Sexual Activity in Able-Bodied Individuals and Those Living with Spinal Cord Injury

Sexuality is an integral part of the human experience and persists in health and disability. The cardiovascular system is crucial to sexual function and can be affected profoundly by spinal cord injury (SCI). The effects of sexual activity on the cardiovascular system in SCI have not been summarized and compared with sexual activity in able-bodied individuals. A keyword search of Embase, PubMed, and Medline was conducted. From 471 retrieved studies for able-bodied individuals, 11 were included that met the strict criteria of medically uncomplicated participants. In the SCI literature, 117 studies were screened, with 18 meeting criteria. In able-bodied persons, sexual activity resulted in modest increases in systolic blood pressure peaking at orgasm (males of 163 mm Hg and females of 142 mm Hg) and returning to baseline shortly afterward. In persons with SCI, results varied from minimal changes to significant elevations in systolic blood pressure because of episodes of autonomic dysreflexia, especially in those with high thoracic and cervical lesions. Peak systolic blood pressure in these individuals was measured to be as high as 325 mm Hg. In the SCI population, more intense stimuli (including penile vibrostimulation and electroejaculation) tended to result in a greater increase in systolic blood pressure compared with self-stimulation. Studies that used continuous versus intermittent monitoring were more likely to report greater changes in systolic blood pressure. In able-bodied persons, sexual activity results in modest increases in blood pressure. In those with SCI, intense stimulation and higher injury levels result in a higher likelihood of autonomic dysreflexia and elevated blood pressure. Because of rapid changes in blood pressure, continuous monitoring is more advantageous than intermittent measurement, because the latter may miss peak values.

The contribution of neurophysiology in the diagnosis and management of cervical spondylotic myelopathy: a review.

Topical review of the literature. The objective of this review article was to assess indications and usefulness of various neurophysiological techniques in diagnosis and management of cervical spondylogenic myelopathy (CSM). The MEDLINE, accessed by Pubmed and EMBASE electronic databases, was searched using the medical subject headings: 'compressive myelopathy', 'cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM)', 'cervical spondylogenic myelopathy', 'motor evoked potentials (MEPs)', 'transcranial magnetic stimulation', 'somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)', 'electromyography (EMG)', 'nerve conduction studies (NCS)' and 'cutaneous silent period (CSP)'. SEPs and MEPs recording can usefully supplement clinical examination and neuroimaging findings in assessing the spinal cord injury level and severity. Segmental cervical cord dysfunction can be revealed by an abnormal spinal N13 response, whereas the P14 potential is a reliable marker of dorsal column impairment. MEPs may also help in the differential diagnosis between spinal cord compression and neurodegenerative disorders. SEPs and MEPs are also useful in follow-up evaluation of sensory and motor function during surgical treatment and rehabilitation. EMG and NCS improve the sensitivity of cervical radiculopathy detection and may help rule out peripheral nerve problems that can cause symptoms that are similar to those of CSM. CSP also shows a high sensitivity for detecting CSM. Neuroimaging, especially magnetic resonance imaging, represents the procedure of choice for the diagnosis of CSM, but a correct interpretation of morphological findings can be achieved only if they are correlated with functional data. The studies reported in this review highlight the crucial role of the electrophysiological studies in diagnosis and management of CSM.

Upper Extremity Assessment in Tetraplegia: The Importance of Differentiating Between Upper and Lower Motor Neuron Paralysis

Scientific advances are increasing the options for improved upper limb function in people with cervical level spinal cord injury (SCI). Some of these interventions rely on identifying an aspect of paralysis that is not uniformly assessed in SCI: the integrity of the lower motor neuron (LMN). SCI can damage both the upper motor neuron and LMN causing muscle paralysis. Differentiation between these causes of paralysis is not typically believed to be important during SCI rehabilitation because, regardless of the cause, the muscles are no longer under voluntary control by the patient. Emerging treatments designed to restore upper extremity function (eg, rescue microsurgical nerve transfers, motor learning-based interventions, functional electrical stimulation) all require knowledge of LMN status. The LMN is easily evaluated using surface electrical stimulation and does not add significant time to the standard clinical assessment of SCI. This noninvasive evaluation yields information that contributes to the development of a lifetime upper extremity care plan for maximizing function and quality of life. Given the relative simplicity of this assessment and the far-reaching implications for treatment and function, we propose that this assessment should be adopted as standard practice for acute cervical SCI.

Early Rapid Neurological Assessment for Acute Spinal Cord Injury Trials.

Clinical trials evaluating early therapies after spinal cord injury (SCI) are challenging because of the absence of a rapid assessment. The aim of this study was to determine whether the severity and level of SCI could be established from a brief neurological assessment capable of being used in an emergency setting. A brief assessment called the SPinal Emergency Evaluation of Deficits (SPEED) was developed and retrospectively evaluated in a cohort of 118 patients with SCI. Foot motor and sensory function was used to indicate injury severity. C3 dermatome sensation, handgrip strength and location of spinal pain were used to indicate the level of injury. With regard to injury severity, a high proportion of patients (94%) with no foot movement at the time of injury were initially diagnosed as motor complete (American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale [AIS] grade A-B), whereas all patients with foot movement were identified as motor incomplete (AIS grade C-D). This was reflected by a good correlation (rs = 0.79) and agreement (κ = 0.85) between the SPEED motor score and the acute hospital assessment. With respect to injury level, the majority of cases with cervical SCI (92%) had no or weak handgrip at the time of paramedic assessment, whereas all cases with thoracolumbar SCI had a strong handgrip. The location of spinal pain was also in accordance with the level of spinal injury. The SPEED assessment appears capable of accurately determining the severity and level of cervical SCI in the first hours post-injury. A neurological assessment that can be performed rapidly after injury is important for clinical trials of early therapy and to identify patients most likely to benefit from intervention.

(178) The impact of event centrality on pain intensity and perceived disability among individuals with spinal cord injury

Event centrality refers to the extent to which an individual construes a stressful experience as central to their life story and identity. For instance, after suffering a spinal cord injury, a person may strongly identify themselves as a ‘person with a disability,’ or even a ‘chronic pain patient’ depending on their recovery status and the severity of their injury. Calling oneself a ‘person with a disability’ or a ‘chronic pain patient’ then forms a reference point for their personal identity. A plethora of studies have demonstrated that event centrality is related to a wide variety of stress-related outcomes, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and physical health symptoms. Event centrality has also been recently shown to be associated with pain intensity in patients with chronic pain. The current study examined the relationship between event centrality, pain intensity, and perceived disability in a sample of 55 spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. Event centrality was significantly correlated with pain intensity (r = .36) and perceived disability (r = .56). Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that event centrality accounted for variance in pain intensity (R2 change = .19) and perceived disability (R2 change = .32) after accounting for demographic variables (gender, age, education, income), level of SCI, and time since injury. Additional analysis of recovery expectancies indicated that higher event centrality was not associated with expectancies regarding change in pain status, but was associated with less positive expectancies regarding resumption of work, social, and recreational activities (r = -.34 to -.40). These findings extend previous results that event centrality is a salient correlate of pain intensity. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of cognitive construals of stressful experiences and their ability to influence pain outcomes.

Forty-five-year follow-up on the renal function after spinal cord injury.

Retrospective chart review. To investigate the extent of renal deterioration in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) and to identify risk indicators associated with renal deterioration. Clinic for Spinal Cord Injuries, Rigshospitalet, Hornbæk, Denmark. This study included 116 patients admitted to our clinic with a traumatic SCI sustained between 1956 and 1975. Results from renography and (51)Cr-EDTA plasma clearance were collected from medical records from time of injury until 2012, and the occurrence of renal deterioration was analysed by cumulative incidence curves. The impact of demographics, neurological level and completeness of SCI, urinary tract stones, dilatation of the upper urinary tract (UUT) and bladder-emptying methods were analysed with Cox proportional hazard ratios. The bladder-emptying methods used for the longest period were reflex triggering (63%), bladder expression (22%), indwelling catheter (5%), normal voiding (4%), ileal conduit (3%) and clean intermittent catheterisation (2%). The cumulative risk of moderate renal deterioration (functional distribution outside 40-60% on renography or relative glomerular filtration rate (GFR) ⩽75% of expected according to age and gender) was 58%. The cumulative risk of severe renal deterioration (functional distribution outside 30-70% on renography or relative GFR⩽51%) was 29% after 45 years postinjury. Only dilatation of UUT and renal/ureter stone requiring removal significantly increased the risk of moderate and severe renal deterioration. Renal deterioration occurs at any time after injury, suggesting that lifelong follow-up examinations of the renal function are important, especially in patients with dilatation of UUT and/or renal/ureter stones.

Spinal cord injury-induced immune deficiency syndrome enhances infection susceptibility dependent on lesion level.

Pneumonia is the leading cause of death after acute spinal cord injury and is associated with poor neurological outcome. In contrast to the current understanding, attributing enhanced infection susceptibility solely to the patient's environment and motor dysfunction, we investigate whether a secondary functional neurogenic immune deficiency (spinal cord injury-induced immune deficiency syndrome, SCI-IDS) may account for the enhanced infection susceptibility. We applied a clinically relevant model of experimental induced pneumonia to investigate whether the systemic SCI-IDS is functional sufficient to cause pneumonia dependent on spinal cord injury lesion level and investigated whether findings are mirrored in a large prospective cohort study after human spinal cord injury. In a mouse model of inducible pneumonia, high thoracic lesions that interrupt sympathetic innervation to major immune organs, but not low thoracic lesions, significantly increased bacterial load in lungs. The ability to clear the bacterial load from the lung remained preserved in sham animals. Propagated immune susceptibility depended on injury of central pre-ganglionic but not peripheral postganglionic sympathetic innervation to the spleen. Thoracic spinal cord injury level was confirmed as an independent increased risk factor of pneumonia in patients after motor complete spinal cord injury (odds ratio = 1.35, P < 0.001) independently from mechanical ventilation and preserved sensory function by multiple regression analysis. We present evidence that spinal cord injury directly causes increased risk for bacterial infection in mice as well as in patients. Besides obvious motor and sensory paralysis, spinal cord injury also induces a functional SCI-IDS ('immune paralysis'), sufficient to propagate clinically relevant infection in an injury level dependent manner.

Control of autonomic dysreflexia in patients with high level of chronic spinal cord injury during cystoscopy

Background Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a clinical emergency that frequently occurs in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) during cystoscopy. It should be treated by removing the stimulus and by medications. We aimed in this study to evaluate the effect of adding magnesium sulfate to dexmedetomidine infusion to control AD in high-level chronic SCI patients during cystoscopy. Patients and methods Forty patients with chronic SCI at the level of T6 or above scheduled for cystoscopy were randomly divided into two groups: the dex group, in which the patients received dexmedetomidine infusion 1 µg/kg for 10 min, followed by 0.5 µg/kg/min; and the Mg group, in which patients received a single i.v. dose of magnesium sulfate 50 mg/kg in addition to the same infusion of dexmedetomidine. Blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) were recorded for each patient, and serum magnesium, epinephrine, and norepinephrine levels were estimated preoperatively, intraoperatively, and postoperatively. Results Results showed a significant elevation in intraoperative BP in the Dex group 10 min after cystoscopy and persisted for 20 min compared with the presedation level in the same group and with the same readings in the Mg group. HR dropped down in the Dex group 15 min after cystoscopy and persisted for 15 min compared with the presedation reading in the same group and with the same readings in the Mg group. Serum magnesium was significantly higher intraoperatively and postoperatively in the Mg group, whereas serum epinephrine and serum norepinephrine were significantly higher intraoperatively and postoperatively in the Dex group compared with the presedation level in the same group and with the same readings in the Mg group. Seven patients (35%) in the Dex group experienced a dysreflexic episode [increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) 30 mmHg or more compared with the presedation reading]; two of them showed elevation of SBP more than 160 mmHg and needed to be treated. On the other hand, only one patient in the Mg group (5%) experienced a dysreflexic episode (SBP 135 mmHg) with no need for medication. Conclusion Addition of a single i.v. dose of magnesium sulfate to dexmedetomidine infusion provides a better control of BP and HR, and reduces the incidence of AD during cystoscopy in patients with high level of chronic SCI.

The thermic response to food intake in persons with thoracic spinal cord injury.

[Purpose] To investigate the influence of the level of spinal cord injury on the thermic effect of food intake (TEF) in persons with thoracic spinal cord injury. [Subjects and Methods] Seven male subjects with spinal cord injury (SCI; age, 40 ± 6 years) and six able-bodied subjects (AB; age, 37 ± 8 years) volunteered to participate in the present study. The subjects consumed an identical test meal consisting of 7.9 kcal/kg of body weight. Energy expenditure and plasma norepinephrine concentrations were measured over a 3-hour period. [Results] The adjusted TEF at 60 min was almost the same among the three groups [AB, SCI with high thoracic cord (T5–6) injury (HSCI), and SCI with low thoracic cord (T9–12) injury (LSCI)]. Although the LSCI group had almost the same adjusted TEF at 120 min as the AB group, the adjusted TEF at 120 min of the HSCI group was significantly lower than that of the AB group. The changes in plasma norepinephrine concentration and heart rate in response to food intake were similar among the three groups. [Conclusion] SCI at the T5–6 level results in a lower TEF due to sympathetic decentralization.