Levels Of Parental Monitoring Research Articles

The Relations of Stressful Events and Nonacademic Future Expectations in African American Adolescents: Gender Differences in Parental Monitoring

Urban African American high school students (N = 206) completed a study to examine gender differences in parental monitoring and the effect on the relationship between exposure to stressful life events and nonacademic future expectations. Participant's ages range from 13 to 18 (M = 15.78, SD = 1.19). Participants reported high exposure to stressful life events, but also high future expectations. Older girls reported the highest levels of parental monitoring. Parental monitoring showed a moderating effect on the future expectations only for African American adolescent males, who were exposed to a high number of stressful life events. This finding seems to suggest that while older African American adolescent females report the highest levels of parental monitoring, the construct has more of an impact on outcomes for males.Keywords: gender differences, stressful events, parental monitoring, future expectations, African American adolescentsAdolescence is a difficult and stressful time in the lives of youths regardless of gender, race, and background. Along with the normal trials associated with puberty, adolescence may be more challenging for ethnic and minority youth (Garcia Coll et al., 1996). Racial and ethnic minority families tend to reside in urban neighborhoods, which are often characterized by many challenges to academic success and good psychological, cognitive, social, and physical development (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). However, living in an urban environment does not automatically lead to negative outcomes. Parents often buffer adolescents' experiences. In particular, parental monitoring plays significant roles for most adolescents (Spencer, Dupree, Swanson, & Cunningham, 1996, 1998).PARENTAL MONITORINGParents play important roles in the lives of adolescents, and it is no secret that parents hold very different views about sons and daughters. It has also been shown that as early as 3 -years old, parents pressure their children into appropriate sex-typed play (Eisenberg, Wolchik, Hernandez, & Pasternack, 1985). Studies reveal that parents use rewards and punishments differently for boys and girls for appropriate play (Eisenberg et al, 1985). It is important to understand this gender-based differential treatment of boys and girls in early childhood to have a more holistic view of its consequences in adolescence. This point is especially true for African American adolescents. Mandara, Murray, and Joyner (2005) demonstrated in one study how a father's absence or presence differentially affects African American girls and boys. In particular, they found that African American father-absent boys reported lower levels of masculinity (e.g., self-defined traditional notions of maleness as assessed on a scale of Adjective Q-sort of ideal masculine to ideal feminine) than African American father-present boys. The same study showed that lower income African American father-absent girls reported the highest levels of current masculinity of all African American girl participants (Mandara et al., 2005). These findings demonstrate how fathers differentially socialize boys and girls based on gender, and that girls are encouraged by dads to be more feminine and boys to be more masculine. Therefore, this study demonstrates how parenting strategies, and parental monitoring in particular, becomes more salient and meaningful for African American adolescents.In adolescence, one area where gender-based differences become important is in the levels of parental monitoring (Hamza & Willoughby, 2011; Spencer et al., 1996, 1998). Parental monitoring is defined as parents' knowledge, supervision, and control of their children's daily activities and peer relationships in an attempt to minimize the potential risks to which their children are exposed (Cottrell et al., 2003; Hamza & Willoughby, 2011; Spencer et al., 1996, 1998). For example, families that show moderate to high parental monitoring may include parents that are familiar with their children's friends, extracurricular activities, and express concern about where their children spend time away from home and school (Spencer et al. …

Parental monitoring, sensitivity toward parents, and a child's mate preferences

This study investigated gender differences in parental monitoring and sensitivity toward parents and the extent to which these measures can influence children's mate preferences. In 2 samples (the United States and the Netherlands), females reported experiencing higher levels of parental monitoring and being more sensitive toward their parents' feelings regarding mate choice (e.g., being more upset if their parents did not approve of their partner) than males. Individuals displaying higher sensitivity toward parents rated parental investment and cooperation, and to a lesser extent genetic quality, as being more important in a potential mate than individuals lower in sensitivity toward parents. The level of parental monitoring did not significantly predict the importance of parental investment and cooperation or genetic quality in a potential mate.

Marijuana Exposure Opportunity and Initiation during College: Parent and Peer Influences

Marijuana is the most prevalent illicit drug used by adolescents and young adults, yet marijuana initiation is rarely studied past adolescence. The present study sought to advance our understanding of parent and peer influences on marijuana exposure opportunity and incident use during college. A sample of 1,253 students was assessed annually for 4 years starting with the summer prior to college entry. More than one-third (38%(wt)) of students had already used marijuana at least once prior to college entry; another 25%(wt) initiated use after starting college. Of the 360 students who did not use marijuana prior to college, 74% were offered marijuana during college; of these individuals, 54% initiated marijuana use. Both low levels of parental monitoring during the last year of high school and a high percentage of marijuana-using peers independently predicted marijuana exposure opportunity during college, holding constant demographics and other factors (AOR = 0.92, 95% CI = 0.88-0.96, p < .001 and AOR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.08-1.14, p < .001, respectively). Among individuals with exposure opportunity, peer marijuana use (AOR = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.03-1.05, p < .001), but not parental monitoring, was associated with marijuana initiation. Results underscore that peer influences operate well into late adolescence and young adulthood and thus suggest the need for innovative peer-focused prevention strategies. Parental monitoring during high school appears to influence exposure opportunity in college; thus, parents should be encouraged to sustain rule-setting and communication about adolescent activities and friend selection throughout high school.

Cyberbullying Among High School Students

Bullying, a typical occurrence in schools, has gone digital. As a result, cyberbullying has become ever more present among youth. The current study aimed to classify high school students into four groups based on their cyberbullying experiences and to examine the characteristics of these groups based on the sex and age of the participants and the level of parental monitoring. Participants were 133 high school students located in central Texas. A cluster analysis revealed four distinct groups of students who were “highly involved both as bully and victim,” “more victim than bully,” “more bully than victim,” or “least involved.” Significantly more girls and more students in lower grades were classified into the “more victim than bully group” while older students were more likely to be classified into the “more bully than victim” group. No significant differences were found between cluster membership and the degree of parental monitoring.

Marijuana Use Among Latino Adolescents: Gender Differences in Protective Familial Factors

Given the important contextual function of family dynamics and traditional gender roles in Latino cultures, parental influences on substance use among Latino adolescents may differ across genders. This study examined associations between family factors (parental monitoring, parent–child communication, family cohesion, and familism) and marijuana use among 1,369 Latino adolescents in Southern California. Students from seven schools completed surveys in 9th and 11th grades. Longitudinal hierarchical linear regression analyses evaluated the associations between family factors in 9th grade and lifetime marijuana use in 11th grade, as well as gender differences in these associations. Girls reported higher levels of parental monitoring, parental communication, and familism than boys did, but there were no gender differences in family cohesiveness. In a regression model controlling for covariates and previous marijuana use, parent–child communication and family cohesion in 9th grade were each uniquely predictive of lower levels of marijuana consumption in 11th grade. Gender was a statistical moderator, such that higher levels of parent–child communication predicted lower marijuana use among boys, whereas girls’ use was relatively low regardless of parent–child communication levels. Results are discussed in the light of the concurrent socialization processes of family and gender in Latino culture and its relation to preventing delinquent behaviors such as marijuana use.

Parental Monitoring During Early Adolescence Deters Adolescent Sexual Initiation: Discrete-Time Survival Mixture Analysis

We used discrete-time survival mixture modeling to examine 5,305 adolescents from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth regarding the impact of parental monitoring during early adolescence (ages 14–16) on initiation of sexual intercourse and problem behavior engagement (ages 14–23). Four distinctive parental-monitoring groups were identified and labeled as “High,” “Increasing,” “Decreasing,” and “Low”. About 68% of adolescents received a high level of parental monitoring from ages 14 to 16 (High), 6 and 9% respectively exhibited an accelerated (Increasing) and a decelerated trajectory (Decreasing), and 17% had consistently low parental monitoring (Low). Relative to participants in the Low group, adolescents in the High group delayed sexual initiation by 1.5 years. Males, relative to females, were more likely to have had a low trajectory of parental monitoring, and were more likely to initiate sexual intercourse before age 14. In contrast to White Adolescents, Hispanics and Blacks were less likely to receive High parental monitoring, and had a higher rate of early sexual initiation before age 14. The study demonstrates the temporal relationship of parental monitoring with adolescent sexual initiation from a longitudinal perspective. An increase of parental monitoring across ages is accompanied with a decrease of sexual risk. The continual high level of parental monitoring from ages 14 to 16 also mitigated the risk of engagement in substance use and delinquent behaviors from ages 14 to 23.

Personality and Parenting Processes Associated with Problem Behaviors: A Study of Adolescents in Santiago, Chile.

Considerable research in the U.S. has established that adolescent antisocial, aggressive, and attention problems have a negative influence on adolescents' ability to become productive members of society. However, although these behaviors appear in other cultures, little is known about the development of these problems among adolescents in countries other than the U.S.. This study contributes to our understanding of personality and parenting factors associated with adolescent problem behaviors using an international sample. Data are from a NIDA-funded study of 884 community-dwelling adolescents in Santiago, Chile (Mean age=14, SD=1.4, 48% females) of mid-to-low socioeconomic status. Results revealed that rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors were both associated with greater levels of adolescent drive but lower levels of parental monitoring and positive parenting by both parents. Adolescents who reported more attention problems were more likely to exhibit driven behavior, more behavioral inhibition, to report lower levels of parental monitoring, and positive parenting by mother and father. Results of interactions revealed that the influences of positive parenting and parental monitoring on adolescent aggressive behaviors varied as a function of the gender of the adolescent. Helping parents build on their parenting skills may result in important reductions in adolescent problem behaviors among U.S. and international adolescents.

Factors affecting parental supply of alcohol to underage adolescents

The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which parent and adolescent characteristics predict parental supply of full serves of alcohol (i.e. not simply sips) to their adolescent aged 14-16 years. In 2009, a cross-sectional sample of 388 parents from Victoria, Australia was surveyed. Of the 70% of parents who believed that their adolescent currently drinks, 37% reported supplying their underage adolescent with more than a sip of alcohol in the last 3 months. Alcohol supply was significantly associated with parents' perceptions that their adolescent drinks, odds ratio 1.87 (95% confidence interval 1.38-2.53) and higher levels of parental monitoring, odds ratio 1.44 (95% confidence interval 1.10-1.94) but not significantly associated with parent/adolescent sociodemographic characteristics or parents' drinking patterns. Consistent with reports from Australian students, parents are a major source of supply of alcohol to underage adolescents. While there are legislative and policy guidelines regarding the use of alcohol by underage adolescents, parents need support to implement and reinforce alcohol-specific rules for their children.

Parental monitoring, peer activities and alcohol use: A study based on data on Swedish adolescents

Aim: This study investigates the association between two types of social relations during leisure time (to parents and peers) and the frequency of alcohol use among Swedish adolescents, taking possible interaction effects into account.Methods: The data were collected during the 1995–2005 time period by using a questionnaire handed out in the class room. The study includes about 10,000 Swedish adolescents aged 15–16 years.Results: The results show that there are strong associations between the social relations adolescents have during leisure time (both to parents and peers) and the frequency of alcohol use. High levels of peer activity were associated with higher frequencies of alcohol use. Although the effects of relations with parents were modified by peer activity frequencies, high levels of parental monitoring were significantly associated with lower frequencies of alcohol use, regardless of the peer activity frequencies.Conclusions: Parental monitoring is an efficient way to prevent or reduce adolescents’ alcohol use, although its importance may vary due to peer activity frequency.

Adolescent substance use, parental monitoring, and leisure-time activities: 12-year outcomes of primary prevention in Iceland

ObjectiveTo examine 12-year changes in alcohol use and cigarette smoking in response to community-based prevention activities among Icelandic adolescents. MethodsThis study used a quasi-experimental, non-randomized control group design to compare outcomes in 4 Icelandic communities (n=3117) that participated in community-based substance use prevention activities designed to increase levels of parental monitoring and adolescent engagement in healthy leisure-time activities and a matched group of 7 comparison communities (n=1,907). Annual, nationwide, population-based cross-sectional surveys of the prevalence of adolescent substance use were conducted among cohorts of Icelandic adolescents, aged 14–15years (N=5,024), in all communities from 1997 to 2009. ResultsParental monitoring and adolescent participation in organized sports increased in communities that adopted the intervention program compared to communities that did not, whereas unmonitored idle hours and attendance at unsupervised parties decreased. Over time, alcohol use (OR=0.89, 95% CI 0.82, 0.98, p=0.012) and being intoxicated during the last 30days (OR=0.86, 95% CI 0.78, 0.96, p=0.004) decreased more in the intervention than control communities. ConclusionCommunity-based prevention designed to strengthen parental monitoring and participation in organized sports may confer some protection against adolescent substance use.

Effects of Parental Monitoring and Exposure to Community Violence on Antisocial Behavior and Anxiety/Depression Among Adolescents

The aim of the research was to investigate the influence of gender, exposure to community violence, and parental monitoring upon antisocial behavior and anxiety/depression in adolescence. Involved in the study were 489 adolescents (290 males and 189 females) from 4 secondary schools in the city of Naples, Italy. The age of participants ranged from 16 to 19 (mean age = 17.53, standard deviation = 1.24). All were in the 3rd (11th grade) or 5th year (13th grade) of high school. Self-reported measures were used to assess antisocial behavior, symptoms of anxiety/depression, parental monitoring and exposure to community violence as a victim or as a witness. First of all we tested, through a hierarchical multiple regression, the independent contribution of gender, exposure to community violence and parental monitoring upon antisocial behavior and symptoms of anxiety/depression; then we tested the moderating role of gender and parental monitoring on the negative effects of exposure to violence. The results show that male gender, high level of exposure to community violence (both as a victim and a witness), and low level of parental monitoring predict a higher involvement in antisocial behavior. Female gender, being a victim and low level of parental monitoring predict symptoms of anxiety/depression. Furthermore, parental monitoring and gender play a moderating role, minimizing or amplifying the negative effects of exposure to community violence. The results of the research suggest that a similar pattern of risk and protective factors can give rise to multiple paths of adaptive or maladaptive development.

Shading the truth: The patterning of adolescents' decisions to avoid issues, disclose, or lie to parents

Latent Class Analysis (LCA) was used to examine the patterning of adolescents' strategy choice when discussing issues with parents in a sample of 1678 Chilean 11–19 year olds (mean age = 14.9). Adolescents reported whether they fully disclosed, partially disclosed, avoided the issue, or lied for six core areas that bridged personal autonomy and safety concerns. Five patterns were identified: two in which adolescents were likely to either share information about all issues or lie about them and three in which adolescents used a combination of strategies that included sharing some information while concealing other. Membership in the full disclosure class was highest among middle class youth and those who reported the highest obedience, legitimacy beliefs, parental agreement, maternal warmth and knowledge, and the fewest problem behaviors. Interestingly, adolescents in the Lie class reported both the highest level of parental monitoring and low maternal knowledge.

Family routines and parental monitoring as protective factors among early and middle adolescents affected by maternal HIV/AIDS.

The influence of parenting skills on adolescent outcomes among children affected by maternal HIV/AIDS (N = 118, M age = 13) was investigated. Among families with more frequent family routines, over time adolescents showed lower rates of aggression, anxiety, worry, depression, conduct disorder, binge drinking, and increased self-concept. Among families with higher levels of parental monitoring, adolescents showed significant declines in anxiety and depression, conduct disorder, and binge drinking, along with increased self-concept. Mothers' level of illness was associated with parenting. Greater variability in parental monitoring resulted in higher levels of problem behaviors.

Children’s Electronic Gaming Content Preferences and Psychosocial Factors

AbstractThe gaming industry has dramatically increased the range of choices for different game genres and content. Despite this, research on psychosocial factors in children and electronic gaming has primarily focused on time spent on games rather than on content preferences. The present study goes beyond the traditional focus on electronic game frequency by investigating whether children’s personal gaming content preferences are associated with psychosocial factors (self-concept, social competence and parental monitoring). This is accomplished by surveying 825 schoolchildren between ten and twelve years of age (5th, 6thand 7thgrade) in Norway. A preference for violent games was moderately associated with low social acceptance among peers. Preference for pedagogical games was associated with high scholastic and athletic competence as well as perceived levels of parental monitoring. A preference for fantasy gaming was positively related to scholastic competence. Finally, preference for competitive games was strongly associated with experienced athletic competence.

Modeling the behavior of novice young drivers during the first year after licensure

Novice young drivers suffer from increased crash risk that translates into over-representation in road injuries. In order to effectively confront this problem, a better understanding of the driving behavior of novice young drivers and of its determinants is needed. This study analyzes the behavior of novice young drivers within a Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) program. Data on driving behavior of 62 novice drivers and their parents, who voluntarily participated in this experiment, were collected using in-vehicle data recorders that calculate compound risk indices as measures of the risk taking behavior of drivers. Data were used to estimate a negative binomial model to identify major determinants that affect the driving behavior of young drivers during the first year after licensure. Estimation results suggest that the risk taking behavior of young drivers is influenced by gender, sensation seeking tendency, driving behavior of their parents, amount of supervised driving and level of parental monitoring.

Alcohol outlet density, parental monitoring, and adolescent deviance: A multilevel analysis

Lower levels of parental monitoring are associated with youth problem behaviors, including substance use and delinquency. Recent studies employing routine activities theory have hypothesized that greater densities of alcohol outlets, particularly bars, may provide parents more opportunities to socialize outside the home. This, in turn, may decrease a parent's ability to effectively monitor the activities of his or her child, resulting in more deviant behaviors by the adolescent. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), the current study assesses whether or not greater densities of alcohol outlets in zip code areas ( n = 50) interact with levels of parental monitoring to affect levels of deviance among adolescents aged 14 to 16 ( n = 1541). The study finds that adolescents who have higher grade point averages and have not used alcohol report the lowest levels of deviant behaviors. Furthermore, the density of bars interacts with reports of parental monitoring such that adolescents in areas with more bars per roadway mile report lower levels of parental monitoring behaviors, which is associated with higher levels of deviance. These findings suggest that in those areas with greater densities of bars parents may be spending more time away from home, making monitoring of their adolescents more difficult, or parents may be drinking more frequently, thus impairing their ability to adequately monitor their children. Policies and practices that limit the number of bars in neighborhood areas with large populations of adolescents may reduce deviant behaviors.

The effects of family structure, parent—child relationship and parental monitoring on early sexual behaviour among adolescents in nine European countries

To identify the influence of family structure, parent-child relationship and parental monitoring on adolescents' involvement in early sexual behaviour. The study was undertaken in the context of the World Health Organization collaborative Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study. The representative samples were drawn from 10 European countries. A group of 14,287 (6716 boys and 7571 girls) 15-year-olds was surveyed. The data were collected by standardized questionnaires. Adolescents were asked about sexual behaviour, family structure, parent-child communication, and parental control. A logistic regression analysis was applied to assess the impact of determinants. Greenlandic adolescents were predominantly engaged in early sexual behaviour. Intact family was a key protective factor for adolescents' early sexual behaviour. It significantly decreased both boys' and girls' involvement in early sexual behaviour. Close parent-adolescent relationships and a high level of parental monitoring were found to be less protective factors than family structure. Easy communication with parents, especially with the mother, was more significant for girls' than for boys' early sexual behaviour. A low level of maternal monitoring had a higher impact on boys' early sexual behaviour, while a low level of paternal monitoring had a higher impact on girls. For both maternal and paternal monitoring, the strongest relationship was observed among Hungarian adolescents, but among Greenlanders it was not statistically significant. Many 15-year-olds in European countries are engaged in early sexual behaviour. A close parent- child relationship and a high level of parental monitoring are not as important for adolescents' early sexual behaviour as an intact family.

Pathways from Family Religiosity to Adolescent Sexual Activity and Contraceptive Use

Few studies with nationally representative longitudinal data have examined whether and how family religiosity is associated with adolescent sexual and contraceptive behavior. Data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were used to examine associations between a multidimensional measure of family religiosity assessed during early adolescence and reproductive health outcomes (sexual activity, number of partners and consistent contraceptive use) at age 17. Pathways through which family religiosity is associated with these outcomes were identified using structural equation models. Family religiosity was negatively associated with adolescent sexual activity, both directly (beta, -0.14) and indirectly (-0.02). The indirect association was mediated by family cohesion (as reflected in parental monitoring among the entire sample and among males, and in parent-teenager relationship quality and family routine activities among females) and negative peer behaviors. Greater family religiosity was indirectly associated with having fewer sexual partners (-0.03) and with using contraceptives consistently (0.02); these relationships were mediated through later age at first sex, more positive peer environments and higher levels of parental monitoring and awareness. However, among sexually active males (but not females), family religiosity was directly and negatively associated with contraceptive consistency (-0.11). Cohesive family environments and positive peer networks contribute to reduced levels of risky sexual behavior among adolescents from religious families. Parents who monitor their children's activities and peer environments, engage their families in regular activities and foster strong parent-child relationships can help reduce risky sexual behavior, regardless of family religiosity. Parental involvement in prevention programs may help reduce rates of teenage pregnancy and STDs.

The Effects of Mexican origin family structure on parental monitoring and pre‐adolescent substance use expectancies and substance use

Substance use among Mexican origin, low‐income youths is a serious, but under‐studied problem. This study examines the relationship between the structure of Mexican origin families (i.e. nuclear, single‐parent, blended or extended), and the parental monitoring, substance use expectancies, and substance use reported by pre‐adolescents. Family structure did not differentiate the substance use prevalence, expectancies or parental monitoring among the 1224 low‐income, Mexican‐origin fifth grade participants. Parents from all family types demonstrated similar levels of parental monitoring. More importantly, family composition was not related to pre‐adolescents' substance use. Other analyses showed that the relationship between substance use and certain demographic variables (e.g. gender, country of birth, language use) did not differ across family structures. The report concludes by discussing possible developmental and resiliency factors in Mexican origin families that would account for these findings.

Parental Monitoring, Peer Drug Involvement, and Marijuana Use Across Three Ethnicities

The purposes of the present study were to test differences in parental monitoring and marijuana use rates and relationships among constructs across three ethnicities, and to use Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Van de Vijver and Leung's Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) technique to test for cultural equivalence and item bias in the measurement of these constructs. Participants included 7,500 Mexican American, African American, and non-Hispanic White 10th-12th graders. African American participants showed higher levels of parental monitoring, lower levels of marijuana use, and a stronger relationship between parental monitoring and peer influence. SEM results indicated lack of cultural equivalence for each latent factor. ANOVA results indicated item bias for specific items. Putative cultural differences in the relations between parental monitoring and peer influence, as well as potential sources of bias in measuring family, peer, and drug involvement factors among participants from different cultural groups are discussed.