Level Of Armaments Research Articles

THE MORAL IMAGE OF THE MILITARY IN THE ARMY OF AMIR TEMUR

The strength of the country’s army, its combat readiness, the moral image of the military plays an important role in ensuring the defense and security of the country. These factors are the key to achieving the goals set by the army. When we study the life of the countries in different historical periods, we come across many examples that prove our point. Sahibkiran Amir Temur at one time built a strong centralized state and paid serious attention to the organization of the defense of his country, the conduct of successful military campaigns, ensuring national security. Amir Temur relied on the strength of his army to achieve his military and political goals, with the help of which he managed to build a strong state and won serious victories over his powerful rivals in decisive battles. The reason for the strength of Amir Temur’s army did not always depend on the size of the military forces and the level of armament, as Timur himself pointed out. After these thoughts, the question arises as to what goals united the soldiers in the army of Sahibkiran, and what was their spiritual image. In this article, a certain amount of information collected through the study of historical works on Amir Temur’s life shows the moral condition of the soldiers in the army of Amir Temur, their spiritual image with specific examples. In addition, the article examines what methods Amir Temur used to maintain order in his army, what results in they led, what actions the ruler personally performed to become an example for his soldiers, and what impact these actions had on the soldiers. The article exposes what requirements the soldiers of Amir Temur’s army had to meet, what rules they had to observe, and how these requirements affected the moral character and spiritual education of the soldiers

РОЗРОБКА ВИМОГ ДО ТАКТИЧНИХ РАКЕТ

The article developed requirements for tactical missiles, which are based on an analysis of their combat employment and should take into account the experience gained in creating similar missiles, as well as technical capabilities. The ultimate goal of developing a rocket is to achieve maximum effectiveness as a combat weapon, ease of operation and manufacturability. In addition, all the requirements for a rocket must ensure reliable launch of a rocket from any location at a given time, its flight must be carried out according to a pre-calculated program with high accuracy of hitting the target. Presence of high-fidelity rocket complexes it is already able one fact of the existence to stop an aggressor from an attack, as they create the real threat to economic and military potential of opponent. Development of rocket troops and artillery of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is not possible without permanent development of the new rocket systems, and also improvement and modernisation of existent standards, that is why it is first necessary to offer directions of development and introduction of tactical rockets for the use in the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The analysis of technical level of armament and military technique (ОВТ) of the Armed Forces of Ukraine (ЗСУ) demonstrates, that he does not answer the queries of war-time. The long-term chronic lack of budgetary facilities became reason of it for modernisation of existing and development of new types of armament. In the nearest years in many the technical resource of exploitation that can result in the further decline of battle-worthiness of army will make off of them. In these terms one of priority types of ОВТ, capable potentially to promote the defensive capacity of the state there is a rocket-reactive armament (РРО). Without regard to the presence of developments, a problem of increase of efficiency of developments of tactical rockets is always actual on every span of time, because each time considerable changes pass that facilitate work with these rockets or improve тактико are technical descriptions to them. Keywords: tactical missile system, ballistic missile, ground-to-ground, control system.

Traumatic injuries on the crania from the Novo-Sasykul cemetery

This study is focused on the cranial sample from the Novo-Sasykul cemetery of the Pyany Bor Culture in the Lower Kama region (Bakaly District, Republic of Bashkortostan). The Novo-Sasykul cemetery is dated to the 1st–2nd c. AD, and it is fully excavated. The frequency of traumatic injuries has been analyzed in a sample consisting of 94 skulls of adult individuals (47 males, 47 females) stored in the Bashkortostan National Museum (Ufa). Injuries have been examined according to recommendations and methods used in the forensic medicine and paleopathology. The distribution of traumas was studied depending on sex and the side of the skull (left / right or frontal / dorsal). The intergroup variability of the ratios of combat traumas was studied with the involvement of a number of the Early Iron Age samples. The differences in frequencies were analyzed using the chi-squared test and two-tailed Fisher's exact test. It has been noted that the analysed sample is characterized by the high level of fatal combat injuries. In total, 16 injuries were recorded on 12 skulls (21.3 % in males, 4.3 % in females). A significantly larger number of traumas are localized on the left side of the skull, which may indicate a predominant strike direction from right to left. The identified traumatic injuries are grouped into five types. With the exception of one case of injury by a trilobate bone arrowhead, all injuries are qualified as blade weapon traumas. All traumas are perimortal, without any traces of healing. Against a comparative background, the studied sample is characterized by the high level of combat traumas, similar to those of the Late Sarmatian population from Esaulovskiy Aksai, the Hun from Ulangom, and the Bulan-Koba Culture sample from the Stepushka cemetery. However, archaeologically identified low level of armament of the Novo-Sasykul cemetery population, as well as the short period of the cemetery functioning, testify against the regular involvement of the analyzed group in armed conflicts. The high frequency of combat cranial traumas in this group, considering its low militarization, represented mainly by iron and bone arrowheads with a small amount of melee weapons, suggests that the Pyany Bor groups were more likely to be subjected to armed raids, acting more often as victims. Taking into account the planigraphy of the burials from which the injured skulls originate, it has been concluded that this part of the studied group died as a result of a possibly single armed conflict.

JALOLIDDIN MANGUBERDI'S MARTIAL ARTS, TACTICS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIEVAL EAST MARTIAL ARTS

Despite the fact that the Khorezmshah-Anushtegin state took the first blow in the Mongol invasion of the West and had more military forces than the Mongol army, most of the reasons why the state failed to organize defense in the border regions and inside the country and why it was defeated by the Mongols. has attracted and continues to attract attention. In particular, the inhabitants of a number of its cities (including Gurganj, the capital of the Khorezmshahs) and many military units resisted the invaders with their lives and inflicted heavy losses on them, but were eventually defeated by the Mongols. In particular, the last Khorezm king Jalaliddin Manguberdi (Mankburni) fought against the Mongols to the last breath and undoubtedly became known as the strongest and most courageous opponent of the Mongol invaders, and even Genghis Khan and the Mongol invaders themselves acknowledged this. historical processes related to it also fully confirm. The solution to this problem, of course, lies first and foremost in finding full answers to the questions of both sides - the rivals: the Khorezm Shahs and the Mongol states, their martial arts, their level of armament, fighting methods and army structure. In this regard, this article focuses not only on the military potential of the Khorezm kings, military strategy and tactics in the country, but also on the art, tactics of Jaloliddin Manguberdi and its role in the development of martial arts in the Middle East. The problem has been analyzed mainly on the basis of new views and approaches.

“The Case of Fourteen” and the Polish Anti-Soviet Underground in Lviv during 1939-1941

An issue about the Polish underground activity under the circumstances of the occupation regimes in Western Ukraine is considered in the paper. Particularly, the archive criminal case № P-30031 from the fund of the Security Service of Ukraine in Lviv region about the conviction by the Russian authorities of 14 members from the headquarters of the Polish underground “A Union of Armed Struggle” has been published and analyzed for the first time. Prior to this, the course of the war between Poland and Germany on September 1 st -28 th 1939 is briefly characterized; an arrival of the Soviet army and army of the repressive forces is depicted. The autonomous endeavors of the Polish patriots to organize the underground military organizations for the struggle with the occupants in Lviv at the end of 1939 - at the beginning of the 1941 are described. The efforts of the Polish emigration government to organize the underground struggle against the occupants throughout the territory of former Rzeczpospolita II are confirmed. A detailed characteristic of “A Union of Armed Struggle” is given where the command staff, its quantity, a level of armament and the general readiness for the armed rebellion are presented. “The case of fourteen” members of the Union is highlighted, the behavior of police officials, detectives, judges, the officials from the cassation authorities and the Supreme Legislative Bodies of Soviet Ukraine and the USSR regarding to the defendants is considered. The authors have come to a following conclusion: despite the scale and detailed plans of the emigration government and the Polish underground organizations directed to the renewal of Poland according to the borders of 1939, the lack of state, insufficient quantity of weapons, material and financial resources for the struggle had led to the quick revelation and subsequent arrest of UAS leaders, that was one of the biggest underground organization. The analysis of the criminal, control and personal cases of UAS members has depicted the tragic fate of the Polish military underground in Lviv in 1939-1941-s.

ОТНОШЕНИЯ РОССИЯ–НАТО: ОТ ДЕКЛАРАТИВНОГО ПАРТНЕРСТВА К ГЛУБОКОМУ КРИЗИСУ

The end of the Cold War stimulated decisive positive changes in Russia-NATO relations. American military presence in Europe was reduced by 85% which was one of the signs of growing trust between Russia and the West. Moscow and Brussels adopted a number of documents (NATO-Russia Founding Act of 1997 among them) proclaiming mutual intention to develop a “stable and long-term partnership”. Unfortunately, a number of drawbacks in the Western strategy towards Russia (most notably NATO’s enlargement policy) almost derailed prospects to realize the above intention. Negative developments of the military political situation in Europe and in the world resulting from the Ukrainian crisis drastically aggravated the interaction between Russia and Western countries. As a result, Russia-NATO relations were thrown back on the brink of the Cold War and degraded from the level of developing cooperation with the goal of establishing partnership-like cooperation to a deep mistrust. For the first time since the Cold War, the militaries of the parties almost came in close contact creating the risk of military conflict. In this situation, reducing the level of mutual confrontation becomes an urgent task. To achieve this a number of measures may be undertaken: the mechanism of direct bilateral dialogue (primarily within the NATO-Russia Council) should be restarted, steps should be taken to prevent incidents on and over the high seas, certain key provisions of the Founding Act should be clarified and specified, the level and numbers of military maneuvers should be lowered significantly, zones of the reduced levels of armaments should be established, the process of negotiations on arms control and confidence building measures in Europe should be resumed. In fact, a number of such measures may be proposed. But it is important to take into consideration that the discussion on “modernization” of the 2011 Vienna Document on confidence- and security-building measures proposed by the West may be effectively started only in line with the development of a dialogue on security and arms control and achieving here sizable results. The parts should reduce drastically declaratory accusations addressing each other and try to refrain from activity that would be negatively perceived by the other side.

Self-Containment

In anarchic settings, potential rivals can be dragged into arms races degenerating in open wars out of mutual suspicion. We propose a novel commitment device for contestants to avoid both arming and fighting. We assume that the military decides the armament levels of a country, while the civilian decides whether to attack a rival country. When these decision-making bodies perfectly communicate, the decision makers are unable to credibly communicate to their foe their willingness not to arm and not to attack, thus implying that war ensues. With imperfect information, however, peace may ensue as countries credibly signal to their rival a more peaceful stance since contestants are more reluctant to enter in an armed confrontation with a potentially understaffed army. Using data on the 1975 to 2001 period, we provide supportive evidence that in countries where the head of the state or the defense minister are military officers, and are therefore better informed of their armies’ fighting preparedness, the likelihood of observing an international conflict is higher.

SPERM COMPETITION GAMES: A GENERAL MODEL FOR PRECOPULATORY MALE-MALE COMPETITION

Reproductive males face a trade-off between expenditure on precopulatory male-male competition--increasing the number of females that they secure as mates--and sperm competition--increasing their fertilization success with those females. Previous sperm allocation models have focused on scramble competition in which males compete by searching for mates and the number of matings rises linearly with precopulatory expenditure. However, recent studies have emphasized contest competition involving precopulatory expenditure on armaments, where winning contests may be highly dependent on marginal increases in relative armament level. Here, we develop a general model of sperm allocation that allows us to examine the effect of all forms of precopulatory competition on sperm allocation patterns. The model predicts that sperm allocation decreases if either the "mate-competition loading,"a, or the number of males competing for each mating, M, increases. Other predictions remain unchanged from previous models: (i) expenditure per ejaculate should increase and then decrease, and (ii) total postcopulatory expenditure should increase, as the level of sperm competition increases. A negative correlation between a and M is biologically plausible, and may buffer deviations from the previous models. There is some support for our predictions from comparative analyses across dung beetle species and frog populations.

Strategic Militarization, Deterrence and Wars

We study countries choosing armament levels and then whether or not to go to war. We show that if the costs of war are not overly high or low, then all equilibria must involve dove, hawk, and strategies and the probability of war is positive (but less than one) in any given period. Wars are between countries with differing armament levels and the frequency of wars is tempered by the presence of armament levels that are expressly chosen for their deterrent properties. As the probability of winning a war becomes more reactive to increased armament, the frequency of wars decreases. Finally, as it becomes increasingly possible to negotiate a credible settlement, the probability of peace increases, but the variance of armament levels increases and war becomes increasingly likely when negotiation is not available. This matches observed patterns in the data over time.

Becoming Dependent on the Kindness of Strangers: Britain’s Strategic Foreign Policy, Naval Arms Limitation and the Soviet Factor, 1935-1937

This article refutes claims that the 1935 Anglo-German naval agreement represented a finite stage of the Royal Navy's interwar naval disarmament diplomacy, and, indeed that the agreement reflected the Royal Navy's preoccupation with dealing with the German naval menace of the late 1930s. Instead it was merely a continuation of a greater strategy to control and contain naval armaments in Europe through diplomatic means. By controlling naval armament levels in Europe the British naval strategic decision-making elite hoped to limit the threat to the empire emanating from Japanese navalism. Japanese naval expansion was a threat which fed off Western naval arms increases and, therefore, the Royal Navy sought to deter Japanese building through limiting the naval expansion of other, smaller, European navies, so that Britain had no need to increase its own home fleet forces. The Soviet Union held a critical point of convergence in this strategy, as any increases it made threatened both Germany and Japan. An unchecked Soviet naval programme could inspire either nation to build a larger naval force, a condition that the Royal Navy and the UK wished to avoid. This article explains some of the interconnections of the strategic dilemma facing the British strategic policy makers and how the Soviet Union fit into one aspect of Britian's interwar strategic environment.

Why Nations Arm in the Age of Globalization

AbstractWhat accounts for different levels of military forces between countries and over time? Payne (1989) found in cross country regressions cultural influences to be the most important determinant. In contrast to Payne, we will show that the mechanisms of why nations arm can only be fully discovered by time series analysis and – going beyond Payne's model – we will test the impact of the end of the Cold War and show that the process of globalization has a significantly negative effect on the military efforts of nations. Democracy and the membership in defence alliances or supranational organisations have no impact on the level of armament at all.

Correlated evolution of male and female morphologles in water striders.

Sexually antagonistic coevolution may be an important force in the evolution of sexual dimorphism. We undertake a comparative study of correlated evolution of male and female morphologies in a clade of 15 water strider species in the genus Gerris (Heteroptera: Gerridae). Earlier studies have shown that superfluous matings impose costs on females, including increased energetic expenditure and predation risk, and females therefore resist males with premating struggles. Males of some species possess grasping structures and females of some species exhibit distinct antigrasping structures, which are used to further the interests of each sex during these premating struggles. We use this understanding, combined with coevolutionary theory, to derive a series of a priori predictions concerning both the types of traits in the two sexes that are expected to coevolve and the coevolutionary dynamics of these traits expected under sexually antagonistic coevolution. We then assess the actual pattern of correlated evolution in this clade with new morphometric methods combined with standard comparative techniques. The results were in agreement with the a priori predictions. The level of armament (different abdominal structures in the two sexes) was closely correlated between the sexes across species. Males are well adapted to grasping females in species in which females are well adapted to thwart harassing males and vice versa. Furthermore, our comparative analyses supports the prediction that correlated evolution of armament in the two sexes should be both rapid and bidirectional.

CORRELATED EVOLUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE MORPHOLOGIES IN WATER STRIDERS

Sexually antagonistic coevolution may be an important force in the evolution of sexual dimorphism. We undertake a comparative study of correlated evolution of male and female morphologies in a clade of 15 water strider species in the genus Gerris (Heteroptera: Gerridae). Earlier studies have shown that superfluous matings impose costs on females, including increased energetic expenditure and predation risk, and females therefore resist males with premating struggles. Males of some species possess grasping structures and females of some species exhibit distinct antigrasping structures, which are used to further the interests of each sex during these premating struggles. We use this understanding, combined with coevolutionary theory, to derive a series of a priori predictions concerning both the types of traits in the two sexes that are expected to coevolve and the coevolutionary dynamics of these traits expected under sexually antagonistic coevolution. We then assess the actual pattern of correlated evolution in this clade with new morphometric methods combined with standard comparative techniques. The results were in agreement with the a priori predictions. The level of armament (different abdominal structures in the two sexes) was closely correlated between the sexes across species. Males are well adapted to grasping females in species in which females are well adapted to thwart harassing males and vice versa. Furthermore, our comparative analyses supports the prediction that correlated evolution of armament in the two sexes should be both rapid and bidirectional.Corresponding Editor: S. Pitnick

Modeling the Number of United States Military Personnel Using Artificial Neural Networks

Richardson’s concept of arms race dynamics is considered, with two objectives in mind. One is to examine the degree to which hostility, prior levels of armaments and changes in those levels by rivals facilitate the prediction of current arms, with specific attention to year-by-year changes in the quantity of United States military personnel. The second objective is to begin to evaluate the use of artificial neural networks as a way to model learning, not only in arms races, but in a broad range of social phenomena. The results show that Richardson’s class of variables alone are insufficient to predict changes in U.S. military personnel. However, these variables do predict some major, seemingly discontinuous, shifts in military personnel that arise from demobilization following the end of war. Apparently, the neural network approach can learn to discern the end of war before any clear, overt action has taken place to signal it.

Change and cross‐border activity in the European defence industry

Following on from the thawing‐out of the cold war and the revolutions of Eastern Europe, the threat of lower armament levels provided opportunities for the rationalisation of European defence and its military‐industrial complexes. Coupled with the continuing threat of reduced defence expenditures and increasing competition, defence companies have reacted to the changes with a number of strategic moves involving mergers and acquisitions, market nicheing and diversification, in addition to lay‐offs and plant closures. More recently, moves towards a single European defence industry have been discussed among the major contributing member countries and their industry leaders. The integration of a defence aerospace industry seems well placed to succeed, given French co‐operation, and this should produce a formidable, global competitor. East and Central Europe’s contribution to the equation is questionable, although the early signs are that west European defence companies are establishing firm footholds in the region against strong US competition.

Arms Races, Conflict Costs and Evolutionary Dynamics

In conflicts and fights, the winner is often determined by the difference in resource-holding potential, e.g. size, weaponry, strength (RHP). I model the evolution of RHP in a symmetric game with continuous strategies. I show that there is a convergence stable ESS level of RHP if the cost of the trait increases faster than linearly, and that this is the only solution if the cost increases fast enough with RHP. Otherwise with slowly increasing cost, the solution is a cyclically fluctuating level of RHP. It is also shown that if the cost increases linearly with RHP, the only solution to the game is neutrally stable cycles, the amplitude determined by the initial conditions. The cycles come about because in a population drawn into an arms race of RHP, individuals after a while suffer costs so high that mutants with the lowest possible armament level may invade.

Complex dynamics and control of arms race

The aim of this paper is to show that asymmetric, nonlinear armament strategies may lead to chaotic motion in a discrete-time Richardson-type model on the arms race between two rival nations. Local bifurcation analysis reveals that ‘complicated’ dynamics will only occur if neither nation has an absolute advantage over the other one with respect to its level of armament and its capability to keep up the expenditures on armament. The calculation of Lyapunov exponents supports the existence of chaos. Since transitions to chaos can be identified with transitions to war, we use the Ott-Grebogi-Yorke-algorithm to stabilize the arms race model in the chaotic regime and improve the system's performance by making very small time-dependent changes of a parameter under control.

The Indo-Pakistani Arms Competition

The author applies to South Asia a theory of armament that he developed in the context of the superpowers' arms rivalry. The empirical findings are consistent with the results for the superpowers' case: India and Pakistan are found to have matched high levels of armaments with low levels and vice versa. Such results are analytically similar to empirical evidence on alliances showing that states, including India and Pakistan, often ally with the stronger against the weaker side. In both cases the evidence contradicts conventional wisdom on power balancing, internal and external, respectively. The authors' theory explains this otherwise anomalous phenomenon: states use strength not just as an indicator of capability but also of intentions: given the same amount of hostile behavior, weak states appear more aggressive than strong ones. Hence, if states worry about intentions more than about power, they would be attracted to stronger states precisely because of their strength, not despite it.

The dynamics and the instability of the middle east military expenditures in years 1955–1984

A modified Richardson model of the arms race between Israel and the Arab bloc is found to be significant in statistical terms. The analysis uses co‐integration methods and causality tests. Seen from the standpoint of the Arab bloc a causal equilibrium relationship exists with an elasticity close to one running from Israel's level of military expenditures to the Arab bloc's armament level. Disequilibrium behaviour dominates the armaments of Israel as it reacts only to current change in the Arab bloc's armament. In the terms of original Richardson model this means that the arms race system between these blocs is unstable.

Decomposition-aggregation techniques for modelling and stability studies of arms race systems

Decomposition-aggregation techniques are developed in this paper for modelling and stability studies of arms race systems. Two approaches are developed in the first one aggregation concepts are used to develop an aggregate reduced order model representing the multivariables multinations model of the arms race system. In the second approach a two levels decomposition-aggregation technique is developed to transform the initial system model into two subsystems for which an equivalent aggregate armament level is developed. Then conditions for asymptotic stability are derived allowing to determine an equilibrium level of armaments leading to a halt in arms race.