Leucine Catabolism Research Articles

How Excessive cGMP Impacts Metabolic Proteins in Retinas at the Onset of Degeneration.

Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein-like 1 (AIPL1) is essential to stabilize cGMP phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6) in rod photoreceptors. Mutation of AIPL1 leads to loss of PDE6, accumulation of intracellular cGMP, and rapid degeneration of rods. To understand the metabolic basis for the photoreceptor degeneration caused by excessive cGMP, we performed proteomics and phosphoproteomics analyses on retinas from AIPL1-/- mice at the onset of rod cell death. AIPL1-/- retinas have about 18 times less than normal PDE6a and no detectable PDE6b. We identified twelve other proteins and thirty-nine phosphorylated proteins related to cell metabolism that are significantly altered preceding the massive degeneration of rods. They include transporters, kinases, phosphatases, transferases, and proteins involved in mitochondrial bioenergetics and metabolism of glucose, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides, and RNA. In AIPLI-/- retinas mTOR and proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and lipid synthesis are more dephosphorylated, but glycolysis proteins and proteins involved in leucine catabolism are more phosphorylated than in normal retinas. Our findings indicate that elevating cGMP rewires cellular metabolism prior to photoreceptor degeneration and that targeting metabolism may be a productive strategy to prevent or slow retinal degeneration.

Biochemical and molecular characterization of 3-Methylcrotonylglycinuria in an Italian asymptomatic girl.

3-Methylcrotonylglycinuria is an organic aciduria resulting from deficiency of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (3-MCC), a biotin-dependent mitochondrial enzym carboxylating 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA to 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA during leucine catabolism. Its deficiency, due to mutations on MCCC1 and MCCC2 genes, leads to accumulation of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA metabolites in blood and/or urine, primarily 3-hydroxyisovaleryl-carnitine (C5-OH) in plasma and 3-methylcrotonyl-glycine (3-MCG) and 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid (3-HIVA) in the urine. The phenotype of 3-MCC deficiency is highly variable, ranging from severe neurological abnormalities and death in infancy to asymptomatic adults. Here we report the biochemical and molecular characterization of an Italian asymptomatic girl, positive for the newborn screening test. Molecular analysis showed two mutations in the MCCC2 gene, an already described missense mutation, c.691A > T (p.I231F), and a novel splicing mutation, c.1150-1G > A. We characterized the expression profile of the splice mutation by functional studies.

Predictor of Diabetes: Correlation between Leucine Concentration and Insulin Resistance

Leucine catabolism changes among people with central obesity. This condition can lead to metabolic pathway disorder and increased mTORC-1 activation. Downstream signal of mTORC-1 is p70S6K1, which causes phosphorylation of insulin-1 receptor substrate (IRC-1). This study was performed to evaluate correlation between leucine concentration and insulin resistance (IR). This study was a prospective cross-sectional study, involving two groups; control and obese group. General characteristics and blood sample were taken from each subject. Leucin and Homeostasis Model Assesment (HOMA)-IR, as the marker of insulin resistance, were evaluated. The result indicated a significant positive correlation between leucine concentration and insulin resistance value (R=0.351; P=0.006) in central obese men. The higher leucine concentration, the higher the risk of insulin resistance occurrance. Therefore, leucine can be used as a biomarker for early detection of insulin resistance. Keywords: amino acids, mTORC-1, insulin-1 receptor substrate

Metabolism and acetylation contribute to leucine-mediated inhibition of cardiac glucose uptake

High plasma leucine levels strongly correlate with type 2 diabetes. Studies of muscle cells have suggested that leucine alters the insulin response for glucose transport by activating an insulin-negative feedback loop driven by the mammalian target of rapamycin/p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (mTOR/p70S6K) pathway. Here, we examined the molecular mechanism involved in leucine's action on cardiac glucose uptake. Leucine was indeed able to curb glucose uptake after insulin stimulation in both cultured cardiomyocytes and perfused hearts. Although leucine activated mTOR/p70S6K, the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin did not prevent leucine's inhibitory action on glucose uptake, ruling out the contribution of the insulin-negative feedback loop. α-Ketoisocaproate, the first metabolite of leucine catabolism, mimicked leucine's effect on glucose uptake. Incubation of cardiomyocytes with [13C]leucine ascertained its metabolism to ketone bodies (KBs), which had a similar negative impact on insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Both leucine and KBs reduced glucose uptake by affecting translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the plasma membrane. Finally, we found that leucine elevated the global protein acetylation level. Pharmacological inhibition of lysine acetyltransferases counteracted this increase in protein acetylation and prevented leucine's inhibitory action on both glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation. Taken together, these results indicate that leucine metabolism into KBs contributes to inhibition of cardiac glucose uptake by hampering the translocation of GLUT4-containing vesicles via acetylation. They offer new insights into the establishment of insulin resistance in the heart.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Catabolism of the branched-chain amino acid leucine into ketone bodies efficiently inhibits cardiac glucose uptake through decreased translocation of glucose transporter 4 to the plasma membrane. Leucine increases protein acetylation. Pharmacological inhibition of acetylation reverses leucine's action, suggesting acetylation involvement in this phenomenon.Listen to this article's corresponding podcast at http://ajpheart.podbean.com/e/leucine-metabolism-inhibits-cardiac-glucose-uptake/.

For Certain, SIRT4 Activities!

Despite the fact that SIRT4 regulates important biological processes, its primary enzymatic activity has remained ambiguous. A recent study by Anderson, Huynh et al. has uncovered deacylase activities of SIRT4 towards newly described lysine modifications derived from reactive acyl-CoAs generated in leucine catabolism.

SIRT4 Is a Regulator of Insulin Secretion

In a recent issue of Cell Metabolism, Anderson etal. (2017) report that SIRT4 regulates insulin sensitivity in the pancreas via activation of methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (MCCC1) by removal of dicarboxyacyl-lysine modifications. Thus, SIRT4 activates leucine catabolism and causes decreased secretion of insulin from the pancreas.

Disruptions in valine degradation affect seed development and germination in Arabidopsis

We have functionally characterized the role of two putative mitochondrial enzymes in valine degradation using insertional mutants. Prior to this study, the relationship between branched-chain amino acid degradation (named for leucine, valine and isoleucine) and seed development was limited to leucine catabolism. Using a reverse genetics approach, we show that disruptions in the mitochondrial valine degradation pathway affect seed development and germination in Arabidopsis thaliana. A null mutant of 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase (CHY4, At4g31810) resulted in an embryo lethal phenotype, while a null mutant of methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (MMSD, At2g14170) resulted in seeds with wrinkled coats, decreased storage reserves, elevated valine and leucine, and reduced germination rates. These data highlight the unique contributions CHY4 and MMSD make to the overall growth and viability of plants. It also increases our knowledge of the role branched-chain amino acid catabolism plays in seed development and amino acid homeostasis.

Characterization and role of the 3-methylglutaconyl coenzyme A hidratase in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei, the agent of African Trypanosomiasis, is a flagellated protozoan parasite that develops in tsetse flies and in the blood of various mammals. The parasite acquires nutrients such as sugars, lipids and amino acids from their hosts. Amino acids are used to generate energy and for protein and lipid synthesis. However, it is still unknown how T. brucei catabolizes most of the acquired amino acids. Here we explored the role of an enzyme of the leucine catabolism, the 3-methylglutaconyl-Coenzyme A hydratase (3-MGCoA-H). It catalyzes the hydration of 3-methylglutaconyl-Coenzyme A (3-MGCoA) into 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (3-HMGCoA). We found that 3-MGCoA-H localizes in the mitochondrial matrix and is expressed in both insect and mammalian bloodstream forms of the parasite. The depletion of 3-MGCoA-H by RNA interference affected minimally the proliferation of both forms. However, an excess of leucine in the culture medium caused growth defects in cells depleted of 3-MGCoA-H, which could be reestablished by mevalonate, a precursor of isoprenoids and steroids. Indeed, procyclics depleted of the 3-MGCoA-H presented reduced levels of synthesized steroids relative to cholesterol that is scavenged by the parasite, and these levels were also reestablished by mevalonate. These results suggest that accumulation of leucine catabolites could affect the level of mevalonate and consequently inhibit the sterol biosynthesis, required for T. brucei growth.

The metabolic response in fish to mildly elevated water temperature relates to species-dependent muscular concentrations of imidazole compounds and free amino acids

Fish species show distinct differences in their muscular concentrations of imidazoles and free amino acids (FAA). This study was conducted to investigate whether metabolic response to mildly elevated water temperature (MEWT) relates to species-dependent muscular concentrations of imidazoles and FAA. Thirteen carp and 17 Nile tilapia, housed one per aquarium, were randomly assigned to either acclimation (25°C) or MEWT (30°C) for 14 days. Main muscular concentrations were histidine (HIS; P<0.001) in carp versus N-α-acetylhistidine (NAH; P<0.001) and taurine (TAU; P=0.001) in tilapia. Although the sum of imidazole (HIS+NAH) and TAU in muscle remained constant over species and temperatures (P>0.05), (NAH+HIS)/TAU ratio was markedly higher in carp versus tilapia, and decreased with MEWT only in carp (P<0.05). Many of the muscular FAA concentrations were higher in carp than in tilapia (P<0.05). Plasma acylcarnitine profile suggested a higher use of AA and fatty acids in carp metabolism (P<0.05). On the contrary, the concentration of 3-hydroxyisovalerylcarnitine, a sink of leucine catabolism, (P=0.009) pointed to avoidance of leucine use in tilapia metabolism. Despite a further increase of plasma longer-chain acylcarnitines in tilapia at MEWT (P=0.009), their corresponding beta-oxidation products (3-hydroxy-longer-chain acylcarnitines) remained constant. Together with higher plasma non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in carp (P=0.001), the latter shows that carp, being a fatter fish, more readily mobilises fat than tilapia at MEWT, which coincides with more intensive muscular mobilization of imidazoles. This study demonstrates that fish species differ in their metabolic response to MEWT, which is associated with species-dependent changes in muscle imidazole to taurine ratio.

A 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficient human skin fibroblast transcriptome reveals underlying mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

Isolated 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC) deficiency is an autosomal recessive inherited metabolic disease of leucine catabolism with a highly variable phenotype. Apart from extensive mutation analyses of the MCCC1 and MCCC2 genes encoding 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.4), molecular data on MCC deficiency gene expression studies in human tissues is lacking. For IEMs, unbiased ⿿-omics⿿ approaches are starting to reveal the secondary cellular responses to defects in biochemical pathways. Here we present the first whole genome expression profile of immortalized cultured skin fibroblast cells of two clinically affected MCC deficient patients and two healthy individuals generated using Affymetrix®HuExST1.0 arrays. There were 16191 significantly differentially expressed transcript IDs of which 3591 were well annotated and present in the predefined knowledge database of Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software used for downstream functional analyses. The most noticeable feature of this MCCA deficient skin fibroblast transcriptome was the typical genetic hallmark of mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased antioxidant response and disruption of energy homeostasis, which was confirmed by mitochondrial functional analyses. The MCC deficient transcriptome seems to predict oxidative stress that could alter the complex secondary cellular response that involve genes of the glycolysis, the TCA cycle, OXPHOS, gluconeogenesis, β-oxidation and the branched-chain fatty acid metabolism. An important emerging insight from this human MCCA transcriptome in combination with previous reports is that chronic exposure to the primary and secondary metabolites of MCC deficiency and the resulting oxidative stress might impact adversely on the quality of life and energy levels, irrespective of whether MCC deficient individuals are clinically affected or asymptomatic.

Primary and maternal 3‐methylcrotonyl‐CoA carboxylase deficiency: insights from the Israel newborn screening program

3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency (3MCCD) is an inborn error of leucine catabolism. Tandem mass spectrometry newborn screening (NBS) programs worldwide confirmed 3MCCD to be the most common organic aciduria and a relatively benign disorder with favorable outcome. In addition, several asymptomatic 3MCCD mothers were initially identified following abnormal screening of their healthy babies and were appropriately termed maternal 3MCCD. This is a retrospective study that summarizes all the clinical, biochemical, and genetic data collected by questionnaires of all 3MCCD individuals that were identified by the extended Israeli NBS program since its introduction in 2009 including maternal 3MCCD cases. A total of 36 3MCCD subjects were diagnosed within the 50-month study period; 16 were classified primary and 20 maternal cases. Four additional 3MCCD individuals were identified following sibling screening. All maternal 3MCCD cases were asymptomatic except for one mother who manifested childhood hypotonia. Most of the primary 3MCCD individuals were asymptomatic except for two whose condition was also complicated by severe prematurity. Initial dried blood spot (DBS) free carnitine was significantly lower in neonates born to 3MCCD mothers compared with newborns with primary 3MCCD (p = 0.0009). Most of the mutations identified in the MCCC1 and MCCC2 genes were missense, five of them were novel. Maternal 3MCCD is more common than previously thought and its presence may be initially indicated by low DBS free carnitine levels. Our findings provide additional confirmation of the benign nature of 3MCCD and we suggest to exclude this disorder from NBS programs.

Genes of Different Catabolic Pathways Are Coordinately Regulated by Dal81 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Yeast can use a wide variety of nitrogen compounds. However, the ability to synthesize enzymes and permeases for catabolism of poor nitrogen sources is limited in the presence of a rich one. This general mechanism of transcriptional control is called nitrogen catabolite repression. Poor nitrogen sources, such as leucine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and allantoin, enable growth after the synthesis of pathway-specific catabolic enzymes and permeases. This synthesis occurs only under conditions of nitrogen limitation and in the presence of a pathway-specific signal. In this work we studied the temporal order in the induction of AGP1, BAP2, UGA4, and DAL7, genes that are involved in the catabolism and use of leucine, GABA, and allantoin, three poor nitrogen sources. We found that when these amino acids are available, cells will express AGP1 and BAP2 in the first place, then DAL7, and at last UGA4. Dal81, a general positive regulator of genes involved in nitrogen utilization related to the metabolisms of GABA, leucine, and allantoin, plays a central role in this coordinated regulation.

0325 : Catabolism of leucine in the heart inhibits glucose transport

Branched-chain amino acids like leucine induce insulin resistance in muscle and adipose tissues. The mechanism explaining leucine action involves mTOR/p70S6K signaling. This pathway is activated by leucine and is implicated in the stimulation of an insulin negative feedback loop. Knowing that insulin-resistance participates in diabetic cardiomyopathy, we were interested in studying leucine action in cardiomyocytes. Primary cultured adult rat cardiomyocytes were pretreated with different concentrations of leucine (1 to 10mM) during different periods of time (up to 20h) before being exposed to insulin (3x10-9M, 30min). Insulin increased glucose transport. This correlated with the increase of PKB and AS160 phosphorylation, both known to regulate GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane allowing glucose uptake. 1h pre-incubation with leucine stimulated mTOR/p70S6K pathway. This is accompanied by a decrease in PKB and AS160 phosphorylation but, surprisingly, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was preserved. On the other hand, a longer incubation (14h) with leucine induced a drastic decrease in glucose transport. The mTOR/p70S6K inhibitor rapamycin did not prevent this inhibition. The non-metabolized leucine analog BCH had no effect on the insulin-induced glucose uptake. By contrast, intermediates of leucine catabolism, alpha-ketoisocaproate and ketone bodies inhibited glucose uptake similarly to leucine. This inhibition is clearly independent of insulin signaling because leucine also inhibited basal glucose transport and glucose uptake stimulated by the insulin-unrelated pathway involving AMPK. The leucine-mediated inhibition of glucose transport resulted from the inhibition of GLUT4 translocation. The exact molecular mechanism downstream leucine’s metabolites and responsible for the inhibition of GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake is under investigation. Leucine catabolism reduces cardiac glucose transport independently of insulin signaling by an undefined mechanism.

Pregnancy and Lactation Alter Biomarkers of Biotin Metabolism in Women Consuming a Controlled Diet

Background: Biotin functions as a cofactor for several carboxylase enzymes with key roles in metabolism. At present, the dietary requirement for biotin is unknown and intake recommendations are provided as Adequate Intakes (AIs). The biotin AI for adults and pregnant women is 30 μg/d, whereas 35 μg/d is recommended for lactating women. However, pregnant and lactating women may require more biotin to meet the demands of these reproductive states.Objective: The current study sought to quantify the impact of reproductive state on biotin status response to a known dietary intake of biotin.Methods: To achieve this aim, we measured a panel of biotin biomarkers among pregnant (gestational week 27 at study entry; n = 26), lactating (postnatal week 5 at study entry; n = 28), and control (n = 21) women who participated in a 10- to 12-wk feeding study providing 57 μg of dietary biotin/d as part of a mixed diet.Results:Over the course of the study, pregnant women excreted 69% more (vs. control; P < 0.001) 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid (3-HIA), a metabolite that accumulates during the catabolism of leucine when the activity of biotin-dependent methylcrotonyl–coenzyme A carboxylase is impaired. Interestingly, urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleryl-carnitine (3-HIA-carnitine), a downstream metabolite of 3-HIA, was 27% lower (P = 0.05) among pregnant (vs. control) women, a finding that may arise from carnitine inadequacy during gestation. No differences (P > 0.05) were detected in plasma biotin, urinary biotin, or urinary bisnorbiotin between pregnant and control women. Lactating women excreted 76% more (vs. control; P = 0.001) of the biotin catabolite bisnorbiotin, indicating that lactation accelerates biotin turnover and loss. Notably, with respect to control women, lactating women excreted 23% less (P = 0.04) urinary 3-HIA and 26% less (P = 0.05) urinary 3-HIA-carnitine, suggesting that lactation reduces leucine catabolism and that these metabolites may not be useful indicators of biotin status during lactation.Conclusions: Overall, these data demonstrate significant alterations in markers of biotin metabolism during pregnancy and lactation and suggest that biotin intakes exceeding current recommendations are needed to meet the demands of these reproductive states. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01127022.

Consanguinity and rare mutations outside of MCCC genes underlie nonspecific phenotypes of MCCD.

Purpose3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency (MCCD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of leucine catabolism that has a highly variable clinical phenotype, ranging from acute metabolic acidosis to nonspecific symptoms such as developmental delay, failure to thrive, hemiparesis, muscular hypotonia, and multiple sclerosis. Implementation of newborn screening for MCCD has resulted in broadening the range of phenotypic expression to include asymptomatic adults. The purpose of this study was to identify factors underlying the varying phenotypes of MCCD.MethodsWe performed exome sequencing on DNA from 33 cases and 108 healthy controls. We examined these data for associations between either MCC mutational status, genetic ancestry, or consanguinity and the absence or presence/specificity of clinical symptoms in MCCD cases.ResultsWe determined that individuals with nonspecific clinical phenotypes are highly inbred compared with cases that are asymptomatic and healthy controls. For 5 of these 10 individuals, we discovered a homozygous damaging mutation in a disease gene that is likely to underlie their nonspecific clinical phenotypes previously attributed to MCCD.ConclusionOur study shows that nonspecific phenotypes attributed to MCCD are associated with consanguinity and are likely not due to mutations in the MCC enzyme but result from rare homozygous mutations in other disease genes.

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the production of isobutanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae naturally produces small amounts of isobutanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol via Ehrlich pathway from the catabolism of valine and leucine, respectively. In this study, we engineered CEN.PK2-1C, a leucine auxotrophic strain having a LEU2 gene mutation, for the production of isobutanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol. First, ALD6 encoding aldehyde dehydrogenase and BAT1 involved in valine synthesis were deleted to eliminate competing pathways. We also increased transcription of endogenous genes in the valine and leucine biosynthetic pathways by expressing Leu3Δ601, a constitutively active form of Leu3 transcriptional activator. For the production of isobutanol, genes involved in isobutanol production (ILV2, ILV3, ILV5, ARO10, and ADH2) were additionally overexpressed in ald6Δbat1Δ strain expressing LEU3Δ601, resulting in 376.9 mg/L isobutanol production from 100 g/L glucose. To increase 3-methyl-1-butanol production, leucine biosynthetic genes were additionally overexpressed in the final isobutanol-production strain. The resulting strain overexpressing LEU2 and LEU4 (D578Y) , a feedback inhibition-insensitive mutant of LEU4, showed a 34-fold increase in 3-methyl-1-butanol synthesis compared with CEN.PK2-1C control strain, producing 765.7 mg/L 3-methyl-1-butanol.

0347: Leucine, a potent inhibitor of cardiac glucose uptake

It was demonstrated that branched-chain amino acids like leucine induce insulin resistance in muscle and adipose tissues. The mechanism proposed to explain leucine action involves mTOR/p70S6K signaling. This pathway can be activated by leucine and is implicated in the stimulation of an insulin negative feedback loop. Knowing that insulin-resistance participates in diabetic cardiomyopathy, we were interested in studying leucine effect in cardiomyocytes. Primary cultured adult rat cardiomyocytes were pretreated with different concentrations of leucine (from 1 to 10 mM) during different periods of time (up to 20h) before being exposed to insulin (3x10 −9 M, 30 min). In absence of leucine, insulin induced a 6-fold increase in glucose uptake (0.31+/−0.04 vs. 0.05+/−0.01 μmoles/mg.h). This correlated with the increase in phosphorylation state of PKB and AS160, both known to regulate glucose transport downstream of insulin. Pre-incubation with leucine for 1 h stimulated mTOR/p70S6K pathway resulting in the inhibiting phosphorylation of IRS-1 located in the proximal insulin signaling pathway. This is accompanied by a significant decrease in PKB and AS160 phosphorylation but, surprisingly, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was preserved (0.31+/–0.05 μmoles/mg.h). On the other hand, a longer incubation (14h) with leucine induced a drastic decrease in glucose transport (0.056+/–0.01 μmoles/mg.h). The mTOR/p70S6K inhibitor rapamycin did not prevent this inhibition. Moreover, the non-metabolized leucine analog BCH was able to stimulate mTOR/p70S6K pathway but had no effect on the insulin-mediated stimulation of glucose uptake. By contrast, intermediates of leucine catabolism, alpha-ketoisocaproate, acetoacetate and betahydroxybutyrate, inhibited glucose uptake similarly to leucine. Leucine catabolism reduces insulin-dependent glucose transport independently of insulin signaling.

Plasma and breast milk biotin concentrations decrease in lactating women consuming a dietary biotin intake exceeding current recommendations (827.10)

Biotin is a water‐soluble B vitamin with many key roles in human metabolism. As a cofactor for several carboxylation reactions, biotin is required for gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and leucine catabolism. Biotin may also interact with histones to affect genome expression. The dietary requirement for biotin is unknown. Thus, recommendations are provided as Adequate Intakes (AIs). The biotin AI for adults and pregnant women is 30μg/d and for lactating women, 35μg/d. As part of a controlled feeding study, healthy pregnant (n=26, 27wk gestation), lactating (n=28, 5wk postpartum), and control (non‐pregnant, non‐lactating; n=21) women consumed ~60μg dietary biotin/d for 10‐12 weeks. Plasma and breast milk samples were collected and biotin was measured at baseline (wk 0) and study end (wk 10 or 12). Plasma biotin was measured via ELISA kit and breast milk biotin was measured via LCMS. Throughout the study, the response of plasma biotin varied by reproductive group (P = 0.05). Among pregnant (P=0.65) and control (P=0.88) women, plasma biotin did not change from baseline (pregnant: 130ng/L (105, 161); control: 143ng/L (113, 180)) to study end (pregnant: 137ng/L (111, 170); control: 146ng/L (115, 184)). However, among lactating women, plasma biotin decreased (P &lt; 0.01) from baseline (193ng/L (157, 237)) to study end (136ng/L (111, 167)) as did breast milk biotin concentrations (P = 0.02; baseline: 12pM/mL (8.2, 16.5); study end: 7pM/mL (4.8, 9.7)). In addition, plasma and breast milk biotin concentrations were correlated (rho=0.501; P&lt; 0.001). These results indicate that plasma biotin may be a biomarker for breast milk biotin and that lactating women may benefit from a dietary biotin intake that exceeds the study dose of 60μg/d. Data presented as means and 95% confidence intervals.Grant Funding Source: Support:The Hartwell Foundation,The Gerber Foundation,NIH R03 HD065962‐01A1,Shepherd Univ Foundation

Novel roles of holocarboxylase synthetase in gene regulation and intermediary metabolism

The role of holocarboxylase synthetase (HLCS) in catalyzing the covalent binding of biotin to the five biotin-dependent carboxylases in humans is well established, as are the essential roles of these carboxylases in the metabolism of fatty acids, the catabolism of leucine, and gluconeogenesis. This review examines recent discoveries regarding the roles of HLCS in assembling a multiprotein gene repression complex in chromatin. In addition, emerging evidence suggests that the number of biotinylated proteins is far larger than previously assumed and includes members of the heat-shock superfamily of proteins and proteins coded by the ENO1 gene. Evidence is presented linking biotinylation of heat-shock proteins HSP60 and HSP72 with redox biology and immune function, respectively, and biotinylation of the two ENO1 gene products MBP-1 and ENO1 with tumor suppression and glycolysis, respectively.

A bifunctional protein regulates mitochondrial protein synthesis

Mitochondrial gene expression is predominantly regulated at the post-transcriptional level and mitochondrial ribonucleic acid (RNA)-binding proteins play a key role in RNA metabolism and protein synthesis. The AU-binding homolog of enoyl-coenzyme A (CoA) hydratase (AUH) is a bifunctional protein with RNA-binding activity and a role in leucine catabolism. AUH has a mitochondrial targeting sequence, however, its role in mitochondrial function has not been investigated. Here, we found that AUH localizes to the inner mitochondrial membrane and matrix where it associates with mitochondrial ribosomes and regulates protein synthesis. Decrease or overexpression of the AUH protein in cells causes defects in mitochondrial translation that lead to changes in mitochondrial morphology, decreased mitochondrial RNA stability, biogenesis and respiratory function. Because of its role in leucine metabolism, we investigated the importance of the catalytic activity of AUH and found that it affects the regulation of mitochondrial translation and biogenesis in response to leucine.