Letter-word Identification Research Articles

Effect of home environment on academic achievement in child protective service-involved children: Results from the second national survey of child and adolescent well-being study

BackgroundChildren involved with Child Protective Services (CPS) have been shown to have lower academic achievement. It is unclear whether certain qualities of the home environment can optimize academic achievement in this vulnerable population. ObjectiveThis study sought to determine whether home environments with higher levels of emotional support and cognitive stimulation predict later academic achievement and whether this relationship is moderated by placement type (i.e. biological/adoptive parent care, kinship care, or non-kinship foster care). Participants and SettingThis study included 1,206 children from the second National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW-II) who were involved with CPS between 2–7 years of age. MethodsMultivariate analyses were completed to examine the effect of the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) score on later Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-ACH) scores. Moderation analyses were conducted to determine the effect of placement type on this relationship. ResultsAlthough these relationships between HOME scores and WJ-ACH scores were significant in bivariate analyses, they were not statistically significant in multivariate analyses, primarily due to the variable of household income. Although children placed primarily in non-kinship foster care demonstrated higher WJ-ACH scores for Passage Comprehension and Letter-Word Identification subscales, placement type did not appear to moderate the relationship between HOME scores and academic achievement. ConclusionChild- and caregiver-level factors, as well as financial resources available in the environment, may account for the relationship between home environment and academic achievement.

Persistence and convergence: The end of kindergarten outcomes of pre-K graduates and their nonattending peers.

The present investigation examined the benefits of pre-K through the end of kindergarten for children from low-income homes who lived in a large and diverse county (n = 2,581) as well as factors associated with a reduction in benefits during the kindergarten year. Results revealed that pre-K graduates outperformed nonattenders in the areas of achievement and executive functioning skills at the end of kindergarten, and also that the benefits of pre-K at the start of the year diminished by a little more than half. This convergence between groups' performance was largest for more constrained skills, such as letter-word identification, and was attributed to the fact that nonattenders made greater gains in kindergarten as compared with graduates of pre-K. Importantly, convergence in the groups' performance in kindergarten was not attributed to pre-K children's classroom experiences in kindergarten. Convergence was, however, attributable to preexisting individual differences, and there was support for the notion that even though children's skills are susceptible to improvement as a result of pre-K, their longer-term outcomes are likely to be impacted by factors that are outside the scope of early schooling. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A-048 Semantic, Not Phonetic, Working Memory Performance Predicts Variation in Reading Comprehension in a Mixed Sample

Abstract Objective Reading comprehension (RC) is the result of a combination of interrelated abilities including decoding, linguistic processing, and higher-order cognitive functions such as working memory (WM). Problems with RC are associated with deficits in verbal WM, especially on tasks involving semantic processing. Hence, this study’s aim was to determine which is the better predictor of RC when controlling for basic reading ability: semantic or phonetic WM. Semantic WM was hypothesized to be the better predictor. Methods Participants included 258 children (aged 8-13 years) with ADHD, reading disability (RD), or comorbid ADHD/RD, and typically developing controls (53.6% Male, 87.8% Caucasian). Participants completed a neuropsychological battery as part of a larger, grant-funded study (R03HD048752, R15HD065627), including the WJ-III Letter-Word Identification and Passage Comprehension subtests that were utilized to assess basic reading and RC, respectively. Participants also completed the Rhyming Words and Semantic Association subtests of the Swanson-Cognitive Processing Test, which measure phonetic WM and semantic WM, respectively. Results Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed that worse performance on the semantic WM task was associated with poorer RC (Beta = 0.15; p < 0.001) above and beyond basic reading (R2 change = 0.02, p < .001). Phonetic WM was not related to RC when decoding was controlled despite the zero-order correlation being significant (p < .001), showing much of phonetic WM’s relationship to RC may be due to basic reading requiring this skill. Conclusion Findings suggest differences in RC may be related to semantic WM functioning in children with and without RD, but not phonetic WM, when basic reading is controlled. Replication with a longitudinal design is warranted.

A randomized evaluation of 15 versus 25 weeks of individual tutoring for children in care

BackgroundBecause children in out-of-home care lag behind their peers in educational achievement, there have been increased efforts to improve their academic success. Previous research has found that 25 weeks of the Teach Your Children Well (TYCW) tutoring program enhances the academic skills of children in care. ObjectiveThis randomized control trial aimed to assess how much TCYW tutoring is enough to accelerate learning.Participants and Setting: In this study, we compared a shorter version of the TCYW method (15 weeks) with a longer version (25 weeks) in a sample of 72 children in care. Method36 children were randomly assigned to the 15-week group and 36 to the 25-week group. The reading and math tutoring was conducted on a one-on-one basis by paid adult tutors in the children's placement homes. ResultsWith but one exception, ANCOVAs via multiple hierarchical regression revealed no significant differences between the 15 and 25-week tutoring groups on the Woodcock-Johnson (WJ) III reading and math subtests. After we had collapsed across experimental conditions, paired t-tests revealed significant pre-test/post-test improvements on WJ-III Letter-Word Identification, Reading Fluency, Broad Reading composite, Calculation, Math Fluency, Applied Problems, and Broad Math composite. An attribute-treatment interaction analysis, conducted to assess potential moderating variables of the effectiveness of tutoring, revealed that children with higher executive functioning benefited more from the 15-week group. ConclusionsFindings suggest that a shorter version of the TYCW program is as effective as a longer version in improving math and reading skills for children in care.

Low level arsenic exposure, B-vitamins, and achievement among Uruguayan school children.

Millions of children globally, including the U.S., are exposed to low levels of arsenic from water and food. Arsenic is a known neurotoxicant at high levels but its effects at lower exposure levels are understudied. Arsenic methylation capacity, influenced by B-vitamin intake and status, potentially influences arsenic toxicity. In a cross-secitonal study of 5-8 year-old children from Montevideo, we assessed the relationship between urinary arsenic (U-As) and academic achievement, and tested for effect modification by B-vitamin intake, status, and arsenic methylation capacity. Broad math and reading scores were calculated based on six subtests (calculation, math facts fluency, applied problems, sentence reading fluency, letter word identification, passage comprehension) from the Woodcock-Muñoz Achievement Battery. B-vitamin intake was assessed from two non-consecutive 24-h dietary recalls, serum folate and vitamin B-12 levels were measured in a subset of participants. Arsenic methylation capacity was measured as the proportion of urinary monomethylarsonic acid (%MMA). Multiple imputation using chained equations was conducted to account for missing covariate and exposure data. Ordinal regressions assessed associations between U-As and achievement score tertiles in the complete case and imputed samples. A "B-vitamin index" was calculated using principal component analysis. Interactions by urinary %MMA and the B-vitamin index were assessed. Median specific gravity adjusted U-As was 11.7 μg/L (range: 2.6, 50.1). We found no association between U-As and broad math and reading scores, nor effect modification by %MMA or B-vitamins. At low-levels of exposure, U-As does not appear to affect children's academic achievement.

Situated learning, professional development, and early reading intervention: A mixed methods study

The purpose of the present mixed methods study was to investigate a model of situated professional development and classroom-based early reading intervention implemented by the K–2 teaching teams from one school in a large urban/suburban school district in the southeastern United States. Twenty-nine teachers participated along with 125 students (74 intervention, 51 comparison). Student-level data sources included letter-word identification, word attack, spelling of sounds, and passage comprehension measures. Teacher-level data sources included semistructured interviews with each teacher, planning/recording documents, and pre/post questionnaires to gather information about teachers’ self-efficacy and demographics. The main conclusions were the following: (a) struggling readers eligible for intervention made significant gains, (b) struggling readers eligible for intervention made significantly greater gains than their nonstruggling peers did, (c) teachers’ reflections on the intervention and the situated professional development were generally positive, and (d) teachers’ self-efficacy for instructional strategies positively changed across the year.

Bidirectional and co-developing associations of cognitive, mathematics, and literacy skills during kindergarten

This study of children from two U. S. states examined associations among four cognitive and academic skills: executive function (EF), visuo-motor integration, mathematics assessed with applied problems, and letter-word knowledge. Before (T1) and after (T2) kindergarten, children (N = 555) were assessed using the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) EF task, the Beery-Buktenica test of Visuo-motor Integration (Beery VMI), and Woodcock-Johnson subtests of Applied problems and Letter-word identification. Bidirectional analyses showed that all T1 skills predicted at least one other skill, with T1 HTKS and T1 Applied problems predicting all skills. In addition, improving from T1 to T2 in Applied problems was associated with improvements in all skills using random effects analyses, based on differences between children nested in kindergarten classrooms. This overall pattern of results was confirmed using fixed effects analyses, which examined only within-child variability. We conclude that multiple skills undergird early mathematics learning and vice versa.

Reading and Language Performance of Low-Income, African American Boys in Grades 1–5

This investigation examined the gender gap in language and reading skills in a sample of low-income African American boys compared to African American girls from the same neighborhoods and schools. Using a longitudinal, accelerated cohort design, we used individual growth curve models to evaluate the reading and language performance of 1st through 5th graders. We analyzed data for 7 outcomes: (a) language, (b) letter-word identification, (c) passage comprehension, (d) decoding, (e) reading fluency, (f) reading vocabulary, and (g) intelligence. Descriptive statistics revealed no statistically significant differences in performance on language or intelligence measures between boys and girls at any grade level. Conversely, all 5 reading skills measured (e.g., decoding, fluency, and reading vocabulary) showed significant differences in performance by gender favoring girls, but only in 4th and 5th grades. Growth models revealed no differences in the growth trajectories of boys and girls for language or intelligence. However, we observed gender differences in growth trajectories for 2 reading measures—passage comprehension and reading fluency—with girls demonstrating slightly faster growth compared to boys on a measure of passage comprehension and boys showing significant deceleration in reading fluency at 5th grade. We discuss the results relative to African American boys and expected patterns of achievement in language and reading during elementary school.

Schooling Effects on Early Literacy Skills of Young Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children.

Already well documented for hearing children, schooling's effects on early literacy skills for young students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) were examined for the first time in the present study. Piecewise growth curve modeling was used to describe 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old students' growth in phonological awareness, letter-word identification, and vocabulary during 2 years of schooling and the intervening summer (N = 56). Amplification mode was cochlear implants for 45% of the sample and hearing aids for 54%. Classroom communication mode was spoken language only (for 61%) or sign language (39%). Across all skills, significant growth occurred during the 2 years of schooling but not during the summer. These findings underscore early education's importance in promoting DHH children's critical early skills. Universal preschool intervention, including during summer, may be important in ensuring that DHH children have an adequate foundation when schooling begins.

First grade classroom-level adversity: Associations with teaching practices, academic skills, and executive functioning.

Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development and a model-building approach, the authors examined direct and indirect associations between first-grade (G1) classroom-level adversity (CLA), G1 teaching practices, and student (N = 1,073; M = 6.64 years; 49% girls; 82% White) academic skills and executive functioning in G1 and third grades (G3). Teachers reported the prevalence of adversity among their students (e.g., poor home/family life, poor academic/social readiness). Observers rated G1 teaching practices: teachers' classroom management, controlling instruction, and amount of academic instruction (classroom observation system). Children completed literacy and math assessments at 54 months, G1, and G3 (Woodcock Johnson Letter-Word Identification and Applied Problems), and executive functioning at G1 and G3 (Tower of Hanoi). Direct associations emerged between CLA and controlling instruction (positive), classroom management, and academic instruction (both negative). In addition, CLA was related to G1 literacy (but not math) directly and indirectly via classroom management (negatively) and controlling instruction (positively). The addition of G3 outcomes revealed a negative direct longitudinal association between CLA and G3 executive functioning, and indirect associations with G3 literacy and math through G1 teaching practices and literacy. Results support the notion that collective student characteristics influence student outcomes in part through teaching practices and suggest that teachers and students may benefit from the diffusion of high-adversity classroom compositions when possible. Moreover, in high-adversity classrooms teachers and students may benefit from supports targeting classroom management and foundational student competencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

The Unequal Impact of Food Insecurity on Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes Among 5-Year-Old Urban Children

ObjectiveTo examine the associations of food insecurity with children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes using quantile regression. DesignSecondary analysis of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study dataset. ParticipantsA total of 2,046 children aged 5 years. Main Outcome MeasuresChild behavioral outcomes were measured using externalizing (aggressive) and internalizing (emotional) behavior problems. Child cognitive outcomes were measured using the Peabody Vocabulary test and the Woodcock–Johnson letter–word identification test. Food insecurity was measured using the US Department of Agriculture's Food Security Module. AnalysisUnconditional quantile regressions were employed. Statistical significance was set at P ≤ .05. ResultsNegative associations between food insecurity and child behavior problems (externalizing and internalizing) were largest for children with the most behavior problems. For Peabody Vocabulary scores, the negative association with food insecurity was statistically significant only for children in the top half of the distribution (≥50th percentile). The analysis found mixed evidence of an association between food insecurity and the Woodcock–Johnson letter–word identification test. These associations were similar for boys and girls. Conclusions and ImplicationsBecause children's cognitive skills and behavioral problems have long-lasting implications and effects later in life, reducing the risk of food insecurity might particularly benefit children with greater externalizing and internalizing behavior problems.

The role of maternal responsiveness and linguistic input in pre-academic skill development: A longitudinal analysis of pathways

This prospective, longitudinal study examined the association between maternal responsiveness and linguistic input and children’s pre-academic skill development. Further, we assessed the extent to which nascent cognitive and literacy abilities mediated the association between parenting dimensions and pre-academic skills. The sample consisted of 501 mother-child dyads recruited at birth. Maternal responsiveness and linguistic input were coded at 18 months during a shared picturebook reading task. Pre-academic skills were measured at age 4.5 using standardized tests of letter-word identification, reading comprehension, math applied problems, and receptive vocabulary. At age 3, cognitive and literacy mediators included inhibitory control, theory of mind, receptive language, and print recognition. Longitudinal path analyses revealed that both responsiveness and linguistic input made unique contributions to pre-academic outcomes, with linguistic input operating indirectly through cognitive and literacy abilities to a greater extent than responsiveness. Results suggest disparate mechanisms for these parenting dimensions in the facilitation of pre-academic skills.

Attentional fluctuations in preschoolers: Direct and indirect relations with task accuracy, academic readiness, and school performance

Attentional control fluctuates in the presence of internal and external distractors, wandering on and off a given task. The current study investigated individual differences in attentional fluctuations in 250 preschoolers. Attentional fluctuations were assessed via intra-individual variability in response time in a Go/No-Go task. Greater fluctuations in attentional control were linked to lower task accuracy. In addition, greater attentional fluctuations predicted lower performance in a task of cognitive flexibility, the Dimensional Change Card Sort task. Attentional fluctuations were also associated with laboratory measures of academic readiness in preschool, as assessed by the Applied Problems and Letter–Word Identification subscales of the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement, which in turn predicted teacher reports of academic performance in first grade. Attentional fluctuations also had indirect associations with emergent math skills in preschool, via cognitive flexibility, as well as indirect associations with first-grade teacher reports of academic performance, via the relations between cognitive flexibility and emergent math skills in preschool. These results suggest that consistency is an important aspect of attentional control during early childhood.

Benefits of Structured After-School Literacy Tutoring by University Students for Struggling Elementary Readers

ABSTRACTThis study examines the effectiveness of minimally trained tutors providing a highly structured tutoring intervention for struggling readers. We screened students in Grades K–6 for participation in an after-school tutoring program. We randomly assigned those students not meeting the benchmark on a reading screening measure to either a tutoring group or a control group. Students in the tutoring group met twice per week across one school year to receive tutoring from non–education major college students participating in a service-learning course. The goal of this study was to determine whether tutors without prior teaching experience or instruction could improve student reading outcomes with minimal training, a structured reading curriculum, and access to ongoing coaching. Tutored students displayed significantly more growth than control students in letter-word identification, decoding, and passage comprehension, with robust effect sizes of 0.99, 1.02, and 0.78, respectively. We discuss the implications and limitations of these findings.

Education of staff in preschool aged classrooms in child care centers and child outcomes: A meta-analysis and systematic review.

Staff education is considered key to quality of early childhood education and care (ECEC) programs. However, findings about associations between staff education and children’s outcomes have been inconsistent. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of associations between ECEC staff education and child outcomes. Searches of Medline, PsycINFO, and ERIC, websites of large datasets and reference sections of all retrieved articles were conducted. Eligible studies provided a statistical link between staff education and child outcomes for preschool-aged children in ECEC programs. Titles, abstracts and paper reviews as well as all data extraction were conducted by two independent raters. Of the 823 studies reviewed for eligibility, 39 met our inclusion criteria. Research in this area is observational in nature and subject to the inherent biases of that research design. Results from our systematic review were hampered by heterogeneity in how staff education was defined, variability in whose education was measured and the child outcomes that were assessed. However, overall the qualitative summary indicates that associations between staff education and childhood outcomes are non-existent to very borderline positive. In our meta-analysis of more homogeneous studies we identified certain positive, albeit very weak, associations between staff education and children’s language outcomes (specifically, vocabulary and letter word identification) and no significant association with a mathematics outcome (WJ Applied Problems). Thus, our findings suggest that within the range of education levels found in the existing literature, education is not a key driver of child outcomes. However, since we only explored levels of education that were reported in the literature, our findings cannot be used to argue for lowering education standards in ECEC settings.

Playful learning with technology: the effect of computer-assisted instruction on literacy and numeracy skills of preschoolers

ABSTRACTThis study examined the effects of computer-assisted instruction – framed as playful activity and presented via e-tablet – on the literacy and numeracy skills of preschoolers’ enrolled in a private, suburban childcare center in the eastern United States. Two groups [comparison (n = 23) and computer-assisted (n = 24)] participated in this 11-week study. All participants engaged in self-selected, imaginative learning centers. Additionally, the computer-assisted group completed 10 minutes of daily, individualized instruction using interactive, educational software. Scores on achievement tests were collected at the beginning of the study and immediately after the intervention. The groups were compared on achievement of literacy skills (e.g. letter–word identification, picture/definitional vocabulary, phonological awareness) and numeracy skills (e.g. number recognition, counting, sizes/comparisons, applied problems, quantitative concepts, shapes). Results revealed significant differences between the groups on post-achievement tests, indicating that playful learning through educational software may enhance literacy and numeracy skills among preschoolers.

Declines Noted in Cognitive Processes and Association With Achievement Among Children With Leukemia.

To assess change in specific cognitive processes during treatment with chemotherapy only among children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). . A prospective, repeated measures design. . Pediatric oncology treatment centers at Banner-University Medical Center Tucson/Banner Children's-Diamond Medical Center (University of Arizona) and Texas Children's Cancer and Hematology centers (Baylor College of Medicine) in Houston. . 71 children with ALL, with a mean age of 6.18 years at the time of diagnosis. . Using mixed-effects latent growth curve modeling with time since diagnosis as a fixed effect, age-adjusted standardized measures of working memory, processing speed, executive function, and attention were obtained and repeated about one and two years later. A subsample was tested for academic achievement at the end of treatment. . Verbal working memory, visual spatial memory, processing speed, academic achievement, age, and gender. . A significant main effect was observed for age at diagnosis on decline in verbal working memory during treatment. Planned contrasts revealed greater decline among children who were diagnosed when aged younger than five years compared to those diagnosed when aged five years or older. Decline in verbal working memory and achievement in letter-word identification and calculation skills were associated, and decline in spatial memory was associated with calculation. A main effect of gender was observed on processing speed, with female patients showing greater decline than male patients. . Findings from this study may guide the timing of interventions that could improve school achievement among survivors. . Children undergoing treatment for ALL may experience issues with verbal working memory and increased difficulty in school. Nurses are in a position to refer parents and children to school resources for additional academic support.

Do children learn letter writing from their names? Examining the relations between Head Start children’s writing skills and name-specific letter knowledge

ABSTRACTThis study assessed 266 young children’s (mean age = 55.41 months, SD = 4.70 month) writing skills (name writing and letter writing), and decoding skills (letter knowledge, letter-word identification, and phonological awareness), and investigated whether children learn letter writing from their own names, and whether children’s gender is related to their early writing. Multiple hierarchical regression analyses show that among children who wrote recognizable letters in both name writing and letter writing tasks, children wrote a significantly higher percentage of dictated name letters than non-name letters. Letter knowledge was related to both name writing and letter writing skills. There was evidence that once children had developed basic writing skills, earlier gender differences in writing skills were no longer significant. This study provides support for the classroom instructions that integrate children’s own names and decoding knowledge into writing activities.

Psychomotor Ability and Short-term Memory, and Reading and Mathematics Achievement in Children.

The aim of our study was to examine whether the findings from previous research, indicating the role of short-term memory as a mediator of the relationship between motor coordination and academic achievement in adolescents, is also evident in a younger child population. The study utilized a quantative cross-sectional design involving 133 children aged 8-12. The McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) provided four indicators of psychomotor ability (Finger Nose, Walking, Balancing, and Jumping). The Woodcock-Johnson Cognitive battery and the Automated Working Memory Assessment (AWMA) provided two measures of short-term memory (Numbers Reversed and Digit Recall) and the WJIII Achievement battery provided two measures of reading achievement (Letter-word Identification and Passage Comprehension) and two measures of mathematics achievement (Applied Problems and Calculation). Structural equation modeling was used, controlling for age, processing speed, crystallized, and fluid intelligence where appropriate. The results found support for the hypothesis that short-term memory fully mediates the relationship between psychomotor ability and reading and mathematics achievement. These findings indicate the significant affect of psychomotor ability on learning outcomes and consequently the need to assess these in considering learning difficulties, and as such these findings also advance understanding of developmental neural mechanisms underpinning the relationships.

Academic Achievement in Adults with a History of Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Population-Based Prospective Study.

Previous research on the developmental course of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is limited by biased clinic-referred samples and other methodological problems. Thus, questions about adult academic outcomes associated with childhood ADHD remain unanswered. Thus, the objective of this study was to describe academic outcomes in adulthood among incident cases of research-identified childhood ADHD versus non-ADHD referents from a population-based birth cohort. Young adults with research-identified childhood ADHD (N = 232; mean age 27.0 yr; 72.0% men) and referents (N = 335; mean age 28.6 yr; 62.7% men) from a 1976 to 1982 birth cohort (N = 5699) were invited to participate in a followup study and were administered an academic achievement battery consisting of the basic reading component of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-III) and the arithmetic subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Third Edition (WRAT-3). Outcomes were compared between the 2 groups using linear regression models, adjusted for age, sex, and comorbid learning disability status. Childhood ADHD cases scored from 3 to 5 grade equivalents lower on all academic tests compared with referents, with mean (SD) standard scores of 95.7 (8.4) versus 101.8 (8.1) in basic reading; 95.0 (9.3) versus 101.9 (8.5) in letterword identification; 98.2 (8.6) versus 103.2 (9.2) in passage comprehension; 95.7 (9.1) versus 100.9 (9.0) in word attack; and 87.8 (12.9) versus 98.0 (12.0) in arithmetic. This is the first prospective, population-based study of adult academic outcomes of childhood ADHD. Our data provide evidence that childhood onset ADHD is associated with long-term underachievement in reading and math that may negatively impact ultimate educational attainment and occupational functioning in adulthood.