Letter Substitution Research Articles

Handwriting in Alzheimer's Disease.

Agraphia is a typical feature in the clinical course of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Assess the differences between AD and normal aging as regards kinematographic features of handwriting and elucidate writing deficits in AD. The study included 23 patients with AD (78.09 years/SD = 7.12; MMSE 21.39/SD = 3.61) and 34 healthy controls (75.56 years/SD = 5.85; MMSE 29.06/SD = 0.78). Both groups performed alphabetical and non-alphabetical writing tasks. The kinematographic assessment included the average number of inversions per stroke (NIV; number of peaks in the velocity profile in a single up or down stroke), percentage of automated segments, frequency (average number of strokes per second), writing pressure, and writing velocity on paper. A total of 14 patients showed overt writing difficulties reflected by omissions or substitutions of letters. AD patients showed less automated movements (as measured by NIV), lower writing velocity, and lower frequency of up-and-down strokes in non-alphabetical as well as in alphabetical writing. In the patient group, Spearman correlation analysis between overt writing performance and NIV was significant. That means patients who had less errors in writing a sentence showed a higher automaticity in handwriting. The correctness of alphabetical writing and some kinematographic measures in writing non-alphabetical material reached excellent diagnostic values in ROC analyses. There was no difference in the application of pressure on the pen between patients and controls. Writing disorders are multi-componential in AD and not strictly limited to one processing level. The slow and poorly automated execution of motor programs is not bound to alphabetical material.

Single Word Reading in the Real World: Effects of Transposed-Letters.

We investigated single word reading in a context where isolated word presentation is not unusual reading road signs in a simulated car driving situation. Participants had to indicate if the inscription on the road sign was a real word or not (lexical decision). The critical nonwords were created in two ways: by transposing two letters in a real word (e.g., the word Highway becomes Hihgway) or by substituting the same two letters with different letters (Hifpway). The baseword used to create the critical nonword stimuli were either congruent with a driving context (e.g., highway) or incongruent (e.g., garden). Nonwords created by a letter transposition were harder to reject as such compared with letter substitution nonwords a transposed-letter effect. The effect of baseword congruency was not significant and did not interact with the transposed-letter effect.

Dysfunction of the left angular gyrus may be associated with writing errors in ALS

Background: Language dysfunction is a feature of cognitive impairment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) that may compromise communication. Objective: To elucidate language dysfunction in patients with ALS and its relationship with other neuropsychological tests and to identify the brain regions associated with this dysfunction using perfusion image. Methods: Overall, 37 patients with ALS were included in this study. Their neuropsychological function was investigated using the Western Aphasia Battery (WAB), Frontal Assessment Battery and Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. N-isopropyl-p-[123I] iodoamphetamine single-photon emission computed tomography was used to examine regional cerebral blood flow and its relationship with WAB scores was investigated using multiple regression analyses, controlled for age, sex and years of education. Results: Frequency of language abnormality in ALS was 8.5% for spontaneous speech, 25.7% for auditory verbal comprehension, 8.8% for repetition, 14.7% for naming, 17.6% for reading and 51.4% for writing. The writing error was mainly omission and substitution of kana letters. Executive tests were correlated with naming (r > 0.5, p < 0.001) and reading (r > 0.4, p < 0.01) scores. With respect to the writing sub-test, positive perfusional relationship was only detected in the left angular gyrus. Conclusions: The left angular gyrus is the region associated with the writing errors observed in ALS.

Factors Leading to Spelling Change of English Language Words on Whatsapp

Purpose: This paper discusses the findings of a research study that sought to investigate the factors that lead to the change of spelling for some English language words by WhatsApp users in Botswana. The investigation was informed by some unconventional spelling of some words in the English language, which otherwise would seem easy to spell. Although writers on social media platforms do not have to conform to standard language rules, some nonstandard forms of spelling similar to those collected from the chat groups, have now evidenced to be cropping in the academic writing.&#x0D; Methodology: Data were collected from WhatsApp chat groups. The chat groups comprised of young (university class groups) and a mixture of young and middle aged (in church, social and family groups) users. Daily observations and documentations of strikingly modified spellings of words on WhatsApp were done over a period of 12 months. The Content Analysis data collection method was employed to collect data from a set of written texts on WhatsApp chat groups mentioned. &#x0D; Findings: The findings of the study unearthed a metamorphosis and alterations of words, replacement of /s/ with /z/, excision of some letters in the normal spelling of some words and substitution of letters with numbers. Factors such as being innovative, wanting to belong and speed of typing a text message amid the hype of everyday life, were realized.&#x0D; Recommendations: It is hoped that the paper will influence social media users, particularly students, to be spelling sensitive and conform to standard rules when they write in more formal platforms such as school assignments.

Friends in Low-Entropy Places: Orthographic Neighbor Effects on Visual Word Identification Differ Across Letter Positions.

Visual word recognition is facilitated by the presence of orthographic neighbors that mismatch the target word by a single letter substitution. However, researchers typically do not consider where neighbors mismatch the target. In light of evidence that some letter positions are more informative than others, we investigate whether the influence of orthographic neighbors differs across letter positions. To do so, we quantify the number of enemies at each letter position (how many neighbors mismatch the target word at that position). Analyses of reaction time data from a visual word naming task indicate that the influence of enemies differs across letter positions, with the negative impacts of enemies being most pronounced at letter positions where readers have low prior uncertainty about which letters they will encounter (i.e., positions with low entropy). To understand the computational mechanisms that give rise to such positional entropy effects, we introduce a new computational model, VOISeR (Visual Orthographic Input Serial Reader), which receives orthographic inputs in parallel and produces an over-time sequence of phonemes as output. VOISeR produces a similar pattern of results as in the human data, suggesting that positional entropy effects may emerge even when letters are not sampled serially. Finally, we demonstrate that these effects also emerge in human subjects' data from a lexical decision task, illustrating the generalizability of positional entropy effects across visual word recognition paradigms. Taken together, such work suggests that research into orthographic neighbor effects in visual word recognition should also consider differences between letter positions.

Number of flankers influences foveal crowding and contour interaction differently

Nearby flanking objects degrade visual resolution. If the flankers are similar to the acuity target, this influence is called crowding (CW), whereas if the flanking stimuli are simple bars then the phenomenon is known as contour interaction (CI). The aim of this study was to compare the influence of the number and position of flankers on foveal CW and CI to investigate possible differences in mechanism of these two effects. Five normal observers viewed single, foveally presented Sloan letters surrounded by 1, 2 or 4 flankers (either a Sloan letter or one-stroke-width bars), presented at several edge-to-edge separations. Single flankers were presented in the right, left, top or bottom position, 2 flankers were placed equally to the right and left or top and bottom of the central target, and 4 flankers were equally spaced in all four directions. Percent correct letter identification was determined for each type, number, position and separation of flankers and confusion matrices were constructed for separations equal to 20% and 100% letter width. Increasing the number of flankers caused an increase in the magnitude of both phenomena. CW showed a greater magnitude than CI for higher numbers of flankers. Analysis of confusion matrices suggests that in addition to the edge-to-edge interaction that appears to mediate CI, letter substitution and feature pooling contribute significantly to CW when higher numbers of flankers are presented. Foveal CW is more strongly influenced by an increase in the number of flankers than CI, which can be explained by the presence of additional interaction effects.

Effect of Gayatri Mantra Chanting on Attention, Memory, Anxiety and Mental State in Young Athletes: A Prospective Study

Introduction: The Gayatri Mantra (GM) is one of the oldest available divine hymns in ancient vedic literature, a mantra of physical, emotional, mental healing and spiritual awakening or self-realization. GM is a standard, validated, empowerment tool aiding in effective behavioral changes leading to optimal and healthy lifestyle. Effect of vedic chanting on consciousness and mental state has been long researched and has been documented in ancient religious literatures. However, due to its religious connotations, its scientific scrutiny and validation has been not popularized. The present study tried to assess the effect of GM chanting on attention, memory, anxiety and mental state on healthy young athletes.&#x0D; Methodology: The present study was a prospective one which included 45 athletes who were divided into three different study arms of 15 each – two arms were undertaking normal meditation with or without an add on GM Chanting while meditation, while one was control group. All subjects were evaluated (at baseline and 3 months) for attention (using 6 letter cancellation, digit letter substitution), memory [using digit span test (forward, backward), multiple choice apparatus], anxiety (using state trait anxiety inventory), and mental state using MMSE. Results were statistically analyzed.&#x0D; Results: Subjects with GM chanting showed significant improvement in attention and memory domain. Less failed attempts and prompt response to audio and visual stimuli for multiple choice apparatus was noted for the GM group. Sustained visual attention, scanning without distraction and better concentration are required for the digit cancellation test. Marked improvements in both state and trait anxiety was noted for the GM chanters. Improved mental state was observed for both meditating group compared with the control.&#x0D; &#x0D; Conclusion: GM chanting plays a significant role in the well being of the people. GM chanting has significant effects in attention, memory, anxiety and mental state. Regular chanting of GM shall improve learning power, concentration, prosperity, eternal power, peace and improves quality of life.&#x0D;

The effects of familiarity and orientation in the haptic change task.

In seven experiments we examined haptic memory for location, item information, and orientation for 12 tangible pictures, geometrical forms, and letter shapes in the change task. The study evaluated the influence of stimulus familiarity on change task performance. In the change task, participants are exposed to an array of patterns and subsequently have to indicate which ones have been altered on a second array. We also sought to determine whether prior demonstrations of female advantages in the haptic change task were reliable (Heller et al., 2010). The present experiments failed to replicate gender differences, overall with large samples. When participants were told about the nature of the picture change they should anticipate (45° or 90° rotation, location exchange), comparable performance was found for the groups in Experiment 1. In another experiment, participants were not told what sort of change might occur, and higher performance was found for the 90° rotation group than for the location exchange and 45° groups. Participants benefited from explicit instructions about the nature of the change. Telling participants the names of the raised-line pictures during initial study improved both change performance with the pictures and subsequent recognition. Changes derived from the substitution of new tangible print capital letters were easier to detect than location exchanges of the letters. Changes from letters to geometrical shapes were easy to detect. High performance resulted when participants were told to indicate which tangible letters were turned (45° or 90°) or exchanged in a final experiment. The results suggest the importance of pattern familiarity in haptic spatial memory.

Writing skill in english Among School students of Nagaon: A case study from Nagaon district, Assam

English is, almost certainly, the most important subject that a child can learn in school. In a multilingual country like India, the English language is considered as an essential tool in achieving effective communication. Bad spelling is a hindrance for the reader to get the meaning of written language and any mistake in spelling can affect the written product and may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, the correct spelling of vocabulary is essential to convey the intended meaning. The objectives of the study are to study different types of spelling mistakes in English among the students of Puranigudam Girls’ High School, Nagaon along with an assessment of the causes of spelling mistakes and to find out the improvement of students regarding spelling mistakes after using remedial measures. Findings clearly indicate that there are nine types of mistakes that are found among the students. Based on the frequency in which they occurred, the substitution of letters ranked highest, followed by the omission of letters, single letters instead of double letters, interchange of two adjacent letters, addition of letters, errors involving an apostrophe, double letters instead of single letter, words having silent letter and joining of words. Techniques for correction included measuressuch as using the dictionary, more reading, more writing, proper pronunciation, etc. Therefore, this study bears immense importance to countries where English is used as the second language and academia in general.

Feasibility and Pilot Efficacy Testing of Integrated Yoga and Shirodhara (Ayurvedic Oil-Dripping) Intervention on Clinical Symptoms, Cognitive Functions and Sleep Quality of Adults with Anxiety Disorder.

Background:Beneficial effects of yoga therapy in anxiety disorders (ADs) are known. Traditional texts describe usefulness of Ayurvedic oil-dripping, Shirodhara technique, in relieving anxiety. Thus, present study was planned to assess the feasibility and synergistic value of Shirodhara as an add-on to yoga therapy in adults with AD.Materials and Methods:Thirty adults (males = 14, females = 16) admitted in a residential holistic health care center with an age range of 29.66 ± 6.63 years and diagnosis of one of the ADs (generalized AD, n = 18; social phobia, n = 8; and panic AD, n = 4) as per mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M. I. N. I. English version 5.0) by a psychiatrist were randomly divided into two groups: (1) integrated yoga-based lifestyle program (YT; n = 15) and (2) YT + Ayurveda (YA; n = 15). Both groups continued to receive conventional treatment and were on stable medications throughout the study period except in cases of emergency. Assessments were done by an independent assessor at baseline and after 2 weeks of intervention for clinical symptoms (HAM-A, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale), sleep quality (sleep rating questionnaire), and cognition (Stroop test and digit letter substitution test) using standard validated tools. Parametric tests were applied using SPSS 10.0 to analyze the data.Results:Twelve subjects in yoga group and thirteen subjects in YA group completed the trial. No side effects were reported in any of the groups. Within-group comparisons showed a significant improvement in clinical symptoms, cognition and sleep quality in both the groups. Between-group comparisons showed significantly better scores in Stroop word task for YA group as compared to YT group. Furthermore, there was a trend toward better improvement in sleep quality for YA group.Conclusion:Adding of Shirodhara technique to YT was feasible and may be useful in improving executive memory and sleep quality in adults with ADs.

Superconvergence of topological entropy in the symbolic dynamics of substitution sequences

We consider infinite sequences of superstable orbits (cascades) generated by systematic substitutions of letters in the symbolic dynamics of one-dimensional nonlinear systems in the logistic map universality class. We identify the conditions under which the topological entropy of successive words converges as a double exponential onto the accumulation point, and find the convergence rates analytically for selected cascades. Numerical tests of the convergence of the control parameter reveal a tendency to quantitatively universal double-exponential convergence. Taking a specific physical example, we consider cascades of stable orbits described by symbolic sequences with the symmetries of quasilattices. We show that all quasilattices can be realised as stable trajectories in nonlinear dynamical systems, extending previous results in which two were identified.

INTENTIONAL ENGLISH TYPOGRAPHY ERRORS ON FACEBOOK

This research aims to identify the linguistics unit used in intentional English typography errors, whether in the forms of word, phrase, clause or sentence. This research also has purpose to describe the types of intentional English typography errors, whether in the forms of omission, addition, substitution, or transposition. This research was a kind of qualitative design that tried to describe the linguistic units and forms of intentional English typography errors on facebook. Data of this research were Englishwords containing intentional typography errors used by the researchers’ friends on facebook in writing their status or comments. The data were got from the source of facebook in which data were collected through an observation toward English typography errors on status or commentson friends’ facebook accounts. The data then, were documented through facilities of print screen (capturing by computer) or screenshoot (capturing by phone cellular). Next, the collected data were analyzed into three steps, namely reduction, display, and verification. To check the data validity, this research applied researcher triangulation. This research resulted in collecting 93 data. The linguistic units consisted of 88 words, 1 phrase, and 4 clauses. The words involved 51 nouns, 8 adjectives, 13 verbs, 3 adverbs, and 13 greeting words. Then the linguistic units could be clasified in 65 substitution that can be categorized into 16 letter substitution and 49 sound substitution. There were also data belonging to 5 addition, 11 ommission, and 1 transposition. It was also found combined-forms, namely 6 substitution – addition, 3 substitution – ommission, and 2 addition – ommission.

Frequency effects on spelling in Hebrew-speaking younger and older adults

AbstractPrevious research has documented conflicting findings regarding the effect of word frequency on spelling in older adults. The current study examines spelling in Hebrew, in which it is easier to define the type of likely misspellings in each word. Younger and older Hebrew speakers spelled 120 single words that differed in word and letter frequency. Results show that all participants made more phonological substitutions of target letters on low-frequency words and on words with low-frequency letters. Yet, younger adults had a lower percentage of correct responses than did older adults, especially on low-frequency words. Vocabulary knowledge eliminated this age effect. We suggest that aging leads to greater reliance on full lexical retrieval of spelling instead of on sublexical phoneme-to-grapheme processing, due to years of exposure to written language, increase in vocabulary, and consolidation of orthographic representations.

Self-Esteem and Performance in Attentional Tasks in School Children after 4½ Months of Yoga.

Introduction:Physical activity is known to improve self-esteem of children. Low self-esteem causes distraction of attention which leads to decline in performance in attentional tasks. The performance of a child at school depends on multiple factors, a major factor being attention. Hence, the present study was designed to see (i) the effect 4½ months of yoga practice had on children's (a) performance in attentional tasks, (b) self-esteem and (ii) the correlation between yoga performance and (a) academic performance, (b) behavior with peers, (c) behavior with teachers, (d) punctuality, (e) participation in extra-curricular activities.Methods:Participants were 116 children with group mean age ± standard deviation; 10.2 ± 0.6 years. We assessed them for (i) self-esteem using Indian Adaptation of Battle's Self Esteem Inventory for Children and (ii) performance in attentional tasks using two different tests, i.e., six letter cancellation test (SLCT) and digit letter substitution test (DLST) and (iii) the teacher's rating scale which analyzed the teacher's assessment of the children's academic performance, behavior with peers, behavior with teachers, punctuality, yoga practice, and participation in extracurricular activities on an analog scale, before and after the intervention. Data were analyzed with PASW (SPSS Statistics 24) using the t-test for paired data.Results:There was a significant improvement in the scores of (i) SLCT (P < 0.001), (ii) DLST (P < 0.001), (iii) social self-esteem (P < 0.01), (iv) academic self-esteem (P < 0.001), and (v) total self-esteem (P < 0.001) after 60 min/day of yoga practice for 4½ months. Pearson correlation showed a positive correlation between yoga performance and the behavior with teachers (r = 0.221 and P < 0.05).Conclusions:Yoga practice is beneficial for school children as it improves attention, concentration, memory, motor speed, and self-esteem (social, academic and total). In addition, improved yoga performance improves behavior with teachers, thus improving discipline in school.

A deficit in post-graphemic writing processes: Evidence for a graphomotor buffer

ABSTRACTPost-graphemic writing processes transform abstract letter representations into representations of writing movements. We describe an individual with an acquired post-graphemic writing deficit. NGN is normal in spelling words aloud, but impaired in writing words to dictation, with most errors involving letter substitutions (e.g., RUMOR written as BUMOR). NGN’s deficit affects graphic motor plans, which specify the writing strokes for producing letters. Analyses of writing speed, fluency, and stroke patterns suggest that NGN’s errors result from incomplete motor-plan activation. NGN’s error rate is high for the first letter in a word, and declines across subsequent positions. On the basis of this serial position effect and other results, we propose that post-graphemic writing mechanisms include a graphomotor buffer, a writing-specific working memory that holds activated graphic motor plans bound to specific serial positions. We suggest that NGN’s graphomotor buffer is damaged such that early serial positions are affected most severely. Finally, we present results speaking to the roles and capabilities of the graphomotor buffer, and the structure of graphic motor plans.

The impact of greening schoolyards on the appreciation, and physical, cognitive and social-emotional well-being of schoolchildren: A prospective intervention study

Greening schoolyards is an initiative to reconnect children with nature and afford meaningful experiences that foster children’s well-being. To strengthen the empirical basis for greening schoolyards, we conducted a longitudinal prospective intervention study with a two-year follow-up, to investigate the impact of greening schoolyards on schoolchildren’s (age 7–11) appreciation of the schoolyard, and their physical, cognitive, and social-emotional well-being. Data were collected amongst nine elementary schools in moderate-to-high-urbanized areas in The Netherlands with approximately 700 children at each measurement. At baseline, all nine schoolyards were paved. Five schools greened their schoolyard between baseline and first-follow-up. Objective measurements included accelero-based measurements of physical activity during recess, attentional tests (Digit Letter Substitution Test, Natu & Argwal, 1995; Sky Search Task, Manly et al., 2001) and a social orientation test (Social Orientation Choice Card, Knight, 1981). Self-report questionnaires included children’s appreciation of the schoolyard (naturalness, likability, attractiveness and perceived restoration), and their social- and emotional well-being (Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire, van Widenfelt, Goedhart, Treffers & Goodman, 2003; Social Support, RIVM, 2005; Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, Varni, Seid & Kurtin, 2001). Multilevel data analyses support our expectation that greening has a positive impact on children’s appreciation of the schoolyard, their attentional restoration after recess and social well-being. Furthermore, our results indicate that greening stimulates physical activity of girls. We found no impact on emotional well-being. These findings provide some support for the relevance of greening schoolyards and may guide further development of schoolyards that facilitate the well-being of schoolchildren.

The English Speech of Francophone Primary School Teachers and &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Cours Moyen Deux (CM2) &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Pupils in Cameroon

This paper examines the English spoken productions of primary school teachers and their graduating pupils in Cameroon, with the aim of checking how much English is learnt by the time the primary child moves to the secondary education level. The data came from classroom observations, tape-recording of lessons as they were taught and a spoken performance test taken by the pupils. The work is couched within the structural approach to phonology, and the error analysis and the contrastive methods of analysis were used to describe the data. A number of interesting findings were obtained. First, francophone primary school teachers in Cameroon are not proficient in English and they cannot therefore teach the subject even though they were summoned to do it. Second, many francophone primary school pupils learn very little English and, as a result, secondary school teachers have no choice but to start the English subject from scratch. Characteristically, these pupils’ spoken productions exhibit various features at the level of consonants like substitution, cluster simplification and realisation of silent letters. At the vocalic level, spelling pronunciation causes monophthongs to be replaced by foreign sounds, and diphthongs and triphthongs to be monophthongised. Most interestingly, vowel nasalization is systematic in specific contexts.

Effect of yoga on flexibility and psychomotor performance in college-going healthy individuals

Background: Yoga is the science of right living and as such is intended to be incorporated into daily life. Studies related to yoga and flexibility were done mainly in elderly, and there is a lack of information on the studies related to yoga practices and psychomotor performance. This present study aims at evaluating the effect of yoga on flexibility and psychomotor performance in college-going healthy individuals. Materials and Methods: A total of 100 individuals with the age varied from 18 to 22 years with no experience in practising yoga were randomized into two groups: yoga group (n = 50) and control group (n = 50). Baseline and postassessments of flexibility through sit and reach test (SAR) and psychomotor performances through digit letter substitution task (DLST) were collected before and after the intervention. Yoga group received yoga practices for the duration of 60 min and 6 days per week for 3 months. Data were statistically analyzed with paired sample t-test (within the group) and independent sample t-test (between the groups) by using statistical package for the social sciences version 16. Results: The results in this present study show a significant improvement in SAR test and DLST score in the yoga group in comparison with the control group. Conclusion: The yoga practices given for a 3-month duration are useful in improving the flexibility and psychomotor performance in college-going students.

Effect of agomelatine on psychomotor function tests in healthy human volunteers

Background: Agomelatine is a melatonergic agonist that acts specifically on MT1/MT2 melatonergic receptors and 5-HT2C antagonism. The present study was taken up to evaluate the effect of Agomelatine 25mg on psychomotor function in healthy human volunteers.Methods: The effect of Agomelatine was studied in 12 healthy volunteers of either gender. The study was a randomised, cross over, placebo controlled study, done after obtaining permission from NIMS Institutional Ethics Committee and informed consent taken from all the subjects, after briefly explaining the study procedure and training them adequately. Psychomotor function was assessed using Choice reaction time (CRT), Critical Flicker fusion test (CFFT), Digit letter substitution test (DLST), Six letter cancellation test (SLCT), Card sorting test (CST) and Visual analog scale (VAS). Psychomotor function tests were performed, 90 minutes after administering Agomelatine 25 mg or placebo. Washout period of seven days was allowed between the cross over. Statistical analysis was done by comparing groups using unpaired t test.Results: There was significant decrease in the mean percentage of time (p&lt;0.01) in CRT in Agomelatine group (20.09±9.47%) when compared to placebo (10.48±3.68%). Improved mean percentage of performance was seen in CFFT with Agomelatine (6.2±2.1%) compared to placebo (9.11±2.99%). No significant difference was noted in the performance of DLST, SLCT and CST. Drug was subjectively rated as sedative on VAS.Conclusions: There is no significant effect of Agomelatine on psychomotor performance. CNS processing of information also improved. Agomelatine can thus be safely administered to depressed patients.

Letter Position Coding with Fred Astaire: Inversion of Letter Position Substitution Effects in Reverse Spelled Words

ABSTRACTThe effects of letter substitutions have been linked to their position within a word (letter position effects). The current study expanded upon previous research by examining letter-position effects for letter substitutions using forward- and reverse-spelled word primes. Often substituting a letter on one side of a word will have a stronger impact on performance than substituting a letter on the other side of a word. In three experiments it was revealed that the letter-position effects of substitutions changed places when words were spelled backwards. This occurred when both the target and prime were spelled backwards. This was evidence of a congruency effect of letter-position priming. The ramifications of these results for word recognition and transfer are discussed. However, the need for future research should focus on the possibility of an inversion process/mechanism.