Letter-sound Correspondences Research Articles

Effects of a Word Boxes Electronic App on Improving Letter-Sound Correspondences of Learners of English as an Additional Language

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of Build a Word-Easy Spelling with Phonics, an electronic application of the word box intervention, on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of letter-sound correspondences for Learners of English as an Additional Language (LEALs). A single-subject multiple probe experimental design across five kindergarten LEALs. Students’ acquisition and maintenance of letter-sound correspondences were measured by the number of correct letter-sound correspondences identified in trained words and the number of trained words read correctly. Generalization measures involved identifying letter-sound correspondences in untrained real and nonsense words and a spelling task. Visual analysis and TAU-U calculations were used to examine intervention effects. Results demonstrate that the intervention Build a Word-Easy Spelling with Phonics substantially improved the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of letter-sound correspondences for the five LEALs. This study extends research on the effects of systematic phonics interventions for LEALs. Implications for practice are discussed.

Foundational Reading Interventions Adapted for Individuals Who Require Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC): a Systematic Review of the Research

The acquisition of reading skills is vital for all individuals given the ubiquitous influence of reading on academic outcomes and quality of life. Individuals with complex communication needs, requiring the supports of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), are often excluded from learning phonological approaches to literacy. Most literacy approaches require verbal production of speech sounds—which is particularly difficult for individuals with complex communication needs. However, despite challenges with spoken production of sounds, research has reported positive outcomes in participation in phonological interventions when they are adapted to meet the needs of individuals who use AAC. The purpose of the current study was to conduct a systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of foundational reading interventions (specifically phonological awareness skills, letter-sound correspondences, and decoding interventions) designed to meet the needs of individuals who use AAC. Results indicate that large and very large effects are observed with adapted phonological interventions for individuals who use AAC. These results are consistent across ages, diagnoses, most interventionists, and phonological skills (e.g., decoding, letter-sounds, sound blending). Future research shifting away from very controlled settings with the researcher (to small and large group instruction, instruction by common service providers like teachers, or other types of instruction) may be particularly valuable to support access to, and implementation of, foundational reading interventions for individuals with complex communication needs who require AAC.

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation enhances learning of novel letter-sound relationships in adults

BackgroundReading is a critical skill in modern society but is significantly more difficult to acquire during adulthood. Many adults are required to learn a new orthography after this window closes for personal or vocational reasons and while many programs and training methods exist for learning to read in adulthood, none result in native-like fluency. Implantable cervical vagus nerve stimulation is capable of driving neural plasticity but is invasive and not practical as a reading intervention. ObjectiveThe goal of the current study was to evaluate whether non-invasive transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) is effective at enhancing novel orthography acquisition in young adults. MethodsWe enrolled 37 typically developing participants and randomly assigned them to a computer control, device sham control, earlobe stimulation control, or experimental transcutaneous auricular stimulation (taVNS) group. Participants then learned novel letter-sound correspondences in Hebrew over five training lessons. Performance was assessed using three measures to evaluate various aspects of reading: Letter ID, Automaticity, and Decoding. ResultsThe taVNS group significantly outperformed the three control groups on both the Automaticity and Decoding tasks. There was no difference on the Letter ID task. ConclusionsThese results demonstrate, for the first time, that taVNS is capable of improving aspects of reading acquisition in adults. These findings have potential implications for a wide range of cognitive tasks.

Early English Literacy Experiences of Korean Children: A Case Study of Phonics Learners

This study explores four Korean children’s learning experiences in early English reading and identifies their challenges from the children’s perspectives. The study draws on a larger research project with 14 children in Seoul. Among the participants, four second graders were selected as a focus group, who were found to have had much difficulty reading in English despite their prior phonics learning. Data were collected from the children and their parents from tests, interviews, informal talks, student work, parent diaries and research journal during a four-month exploratory intervention. Four themes emerged: (1) varying levels of difficulty in letter-sound correspondences, (2) lack of unfamiliar word reading practice, (3) neglect of sight word recognition, and (4) lack of supportive parental involvement. Based on these findings, this research suggests effective ways of assisting learners to become alphabetic readers and also to develop early English reading skills in a more balanced and holistic way.

Effects of a Supplemental Spanish Phonological Awareness Intervention on Latinx Preschoolers' Dual Language Emergent Literacy Skills.

Purpose Preschoolers' phonological awareness (PA) and alphabet knowledge (AK) skills are two of the strongest predictors of future reading. Despite evidence that providing at-risk preschoolers with timely emergent literacy interventions can prevent academic difficulties, there is a scarcity of research focusing on Latinx preschoolers who are dual language learners. Despite evidence of benefits of providing Latinxs with Spanish emergent literacy instruction, few studies include preschoolers. This study examined the effects of a supplemental Spanish PA and AK intervention on the dual emergent literacy skills of at-risk Latinx preschoolers. Method A multiple probe design across four units of instruction evaluated the effects of a Spanish supplemental emergent literacy intervention that explicitly facilitated generalizations to English. Four Latinx preschoolers with limited emergent literacy skills in Spanish and English participated in this study. Bilingual researchers delivered scripted lessons targeting PA and AK skills in individual or small groups for 12-17 weeks. Results Children made large gains as each PA skill was introduced into intervention and generalized the PA skills they learned from Spanish to English. They also improved their English initial sound identification skills, a phonemic awareness task, when instruction was delivered in Spanish but with English words. Children made small to moderate gains in their Spanish letter naming and letter-sound correspondence skills and in generalizing this knowledge to English. Conclusion These findings provide preliminary evidence Latinx preschoolers who are dual language learners benefit from emergent literacy instruction that promotes their bilingual and biliterate development.

English Language Learners’ and Native English-Speakers’ Spelling Growth after Supplemental Early Reading Instruction

English language learners (ELLs) are the fastest growing population of students in U.S. schools, and, unfortunately often experience lower levels of reading and spelling achievement than native English-speaking students. There is growing evidence showing that early reading interventions, which have been effective with native English-speakers, can also be effective with ELLs, although the majority of the research focuses on students who are native Spanish-speakers. Additionally, much less is known about spelling growth for ELLs, especially ELLs who speak a native language other than Spanish. Thirteen first grade students who were struggling with early literacy skills (seven non-Spanish-speaking ELLs and six native English-speakers) were selected for participation. The students were placed in three small reading groups, with four to five students each (at least two of whom were ELLs). The groups met five times a week, for approximately six weeks, for 30 minutes per session (totaling approximately 15 hours of supplemental instruction). The small group instruction was designed to reinforce phoneme awareness skills and help students understand the relationships between spoken sounds and written letters. Analysis of pretest to posttest gain scores showed significant growth in spelling ability. Non-Spanish-speaking ELLs with varying levels of English language proficiency benefitted from the intervention. All students demonstrated growth in their understanding of letter-sound correspondences. Evidence-based practices focusing on phonological awareness and the relationships between written letters and spoken sounds can be effective in terms of spelling ability growth when used in small groups comprised of both non-Spanish-speaking ELLs and native English-speakers.

Phonogram and word decoding patterns in children with developmental language disorders: Evidence for protracted periods of graphophonemic decoding

PurposeChildren with developmental language disorder (DLD) appear to be challenged with word reading problems in a number of ways, yet few investigations in this area are known. Of interest in this exploratory study was how children with DLD decode and recognize words and word parts (phonograms) with irregular (opaque) graphemic properties. MethodSixty children with DLD and typical language (TLD) in 2nd–5th grade, and 19 college-aged adults, were asked to decode individual phonograms, words and pseudowords, and to identify phonogram forms in a recognition task. Responses were categorized as either reflecting graphophonemic (i.e., a letter-to-sound serial decoding pattern), or target (i.e., irregular graphemic spellings typical of English), or unrelated or incorrect responses (i.e., no apparent adherence to grapheme-phoneme correspondences, or conventional English orthography). ResultsAccording to logistic regression analyses, children with DLD at each grade level used higher levels of serial, letter-sound correspondences in their decoded productions of isolated phonograms, real and pseudowords relative to their grade-matched peers with TLD and to adults. DLD2 and TLD1 groups performed similarly across the three production tasks. Results on the phonogram recognition task reflected mixed patterns of responding across child and adult groups. Overall DLD participants made more LS only selections than did TLD participants, although DLD and TLD 4th–5th graders performed similarly to each other in their relative selections of target versus target + LS phonogram forms. ConclusionsChildren with DLD appear to demonstrate protracted stages of graphophonemic serial decoding. A gradual catching-up trend seems to occur over 2nd–5th grades on certain aspects of decoding. A number of developmental considerations and clinical implications for children with DLD are drawn from this study.

The effects of paired kinesthetic movements on literacy skills acquisition with preschoolers.

Students who fail to acquire foundational literacy skills during preschool are more likely to read below grade level average in elementary school and are at a heightened risk for future school failure, poverty, early mortality, and crime. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects and maintenance of and preference for paired kinesthetic movements (KM) to a traditional drill (TD) procedure on letter-sound correspondence and word recognition with 6 preschool children. In 6 of 11 evaluations, participants mastered the KM set in substantially fewer intervention sessions than the TD set. In 5 of 11 evaluations, participants mastered the KM and TD sets with little differentiation between the number of intervention sessions. No participant mastered the control set. Maintenance data demonstrate a higher number of correct responses for the KM condition across all weeks. Preference varied across participants and was not always consistent with the more effective intervention.

Breaking the reading code: Letter knowledge when children break the reading code the first year in school

The aim of this study was to examine when children learn to read and how learning to read depends on a foundation of alphabetic knowledge. 356 children aged 5–6 years completed assessments of letter-sound knowledge, i.e. the names and sounds of uppercase and lowercase letters of the Norwegian alphabet. Each child was tested at the start, the middle and the end of the school year. The time that each child broke the reading code was also recorded. The results indicated that 11% of the children knew how to read before starting school and 27% of the children did not learn to read by the end of the first year. The remaining children typically knew 21 uppercase letter sounds before they were first able to read, and only a few (<5%) knew less than 11 uppercase letter sounds when they broke the reading code. The average of all four letter-scores at the time they broke the reading code was 19 ± 5 letters (mean ± standard deviation). Although letter sound knowledge was associated with the ability to read, it was not sufficient for breaking the reading code. 40% of children who knew 23 letter sounds or more, enough to read more than 80% of the most common Norwegian words, and 15% of children who knew all 29 letter sounds still could not read. Based on these data, it seems reasonable to advocate learning letter-sound correspondences early in the first year of school to form the best possible basis for breaking the reading code.

A comparison of traditional drill and strategic incremental rehearsal flashcard methods to teach letter–sound correspondence.

A comparison of traditional drill and strategic incremental rehearsal flashcard methods to teach letter–sound correspondence.

Learning to Spell Phonologically: Influences of Children’s Own Names

ABSTRACTYoung spellers must learn to symbolize the sounds in words with phonologically appropriate letters. Do children use their knowledge about their own names to do this, performing better on sound–letter correspondences in their name than expected on the basis of other factors? According to some theories, children learn the spelling of their name as a rote form and do not derive conceptual knowledge from the name that transfers to other items. Analyzing data from studies in which 565 U.S. 3- to 6-year-old children spelled words or nonwords, however, we found that children who had begun to represent some sounds in their spelling used the initial sound–letter correspondence of their first name in an appropriate manner more often than otherwise expected. The results shed new light on the role of personal names in spelling development and have implications for early literacy instruction and assessment.

Investigating Auditory Spectral and Temporal Resolution Deficits in Children with Reading Difficulties.

The types of reading difficulties experienced by children are highly heterogeneous in nature, which makes diagnosis and intervention difficult. Over the past 30 years, there has been much debate over the cause of dyslexia. The two most popular theories for phonological deficits in dyslexia are the rate-processing constraint hypothesis, which relates to short timescale processing, and the temporal sampling framework hypothesis, which relates to longer timescale processing. To investigate the relationship between sublexical (i.e., nonword) reading skills and auditory spectral and temporal resolution patterns in children with reading difficulties using the Phoneme Identification Test (PIT) and the Parsing Syllable Envelopes Test (ParSE). These tests were developed to assess the rate-processing constraint and the temporal sampling framework hypotheses, respectively. We hypothesized that a proportion of children who have sublexical reading difficulties may have an underlying auditory-resolution deficit which may impact their ability to form letter-sound correspondences. We predicted that children's sublexical reading difficulties may not be explained by one theory, but instead that both theories may describe different types of reading difficulties found in different children. We also hypothesized that children with lexical (i.e., irregular word) reading difficulties but intact sublexical reading skills would not show atypical results on PIT or ParSE. Behavioral experimental clinical study with children who have reading difficulties. Sixteen children with nonword, irregular word, or mixed reading difficulties diagnosed by the Castles and Coltheart Test 2. Children completed a test battery consisting of a hearing screen and tests of reading, auditory resolution, phonological awareness, attention, spatial auditory processing, auditory memory, and intelligence. Categorization and correlational analyses were conducted. All four children with a pure sublexical reading deficit also had an auditory-resolution deficit. Four of seven children with a mixed reading deficit had an auditory-resolution deficit. Only one of five children with a lexical reading deficit had an auditory-resolution deficit. Individual children's specific deficits were related to either rate processing (n = 5) or temporal sampling (n = 4), but never both. Children's nonword reading scores were strongly correlated with their performance on the PIT in noise, but not with the PIT in quiet or the ParSE. Children's irregular word scores were not significantly correlated with their performance on the PIT in quiet or in noise, or the ParSE, as hypothesized. Strong correlations were also found between children's nonword scores and their phonological awareness scores. The results of this study suggest that neither the rate-processing hypothesis nor the temporal sampling framework is the single cause of reading difficulties in children. Instead, both of these hypotheses are likely to account for different types of reading deficits found in children. This is an important finding as the specific mechanisms driving different reading impairments must be identified to create tools to better diagnose and treat different types of reading difficulties. Further investigation of the PIT and ParSE as potential diagnostic tools for specific auditory-resolution-based reading difficulties in a larger group of children is currently underway.

Supporting struggling readers with digital game-based learning

This study investigates the effectiveness of a digital game—GraphoLearn (GL)—in supporting second-grade students who have persistent difficulties with acquiring accurate and fluent reading skills. The participants (N = 37) were randomly assigned either to a 6-week intervention including sessions with GL, in addition to school-provided support, or a control group receiving only school-provided support. The intervention took place at the students’ homes and schools under the supervision of their parents and teachers. The results showed that the children who received the GL intervention developed significantly faster in word reading than the control group. Moreover, their reading development was significantly faster during the GL intervention compared with that of the follow-up period, which included only typical school-provided support. No transfer effects on reading fluency, reading comprehension, or spelling were found. Furthermore, the children who, according to the observations of their parents and teachers, showed higher cognitive engagement during the intervention had higher gains in word reading and sentence reading fluency than the children who appeared less cognitively engaged. Higher emotional engagement was related to increased playing time but not to larger gains in reading. The study indicates that a short digital game-based intervention training of letter–sound correspondences and word-level reading can give a boost to the reading development of struggling readers. Inspecting the engagement and in-game performance during gameplay provides important information that can be used for further development of the game to respond to the needs of the learners with severe difficulties.

Oral Reading Intervention for an English Language Learner: A Single-case Design

The purpose of this paper was to investigate the effectiveness of conducting a reading intervention in a public primary school setting in Chinese vernacular school in Malaysia. Literature indicated that struggling readers did not master letter-sound correspondences despite the phonics was emphasised in to date curriculum. One male learner who was identified by his classroom teacher as needing special assistance in reading performance participated this research. Using a single-case research design, the participant’s oral reading fluency (ORF) in terms of word correct per minute (WCPM) was measured. Several nonparametric statistics methods, such as Tau and percentage of nonoverlapping data (PND) were applied to compute the degree of association and effectiveness of the intervention, respectively. Visual analysis was carried out to interpret the graph. The data collected was also compared with the updated ORF norm that was established in the United States. The results revealed that the reading intervention facilitated the improvement of ORF of the participant. The significant implications and future research recommendations on the development of reading intervention were highlighted.

Effects of word boxes on improving students’ basic literacy skills: A literature review

Word boxes (also referred to as Elkonin or sound boxes) are used to teach basic literacy skills to children. However, there has not been a review of studies reporting on the effects of word boxes on students’ reading achievement. The purpose of this review was to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the effects of word boxes on students’ reading performance. Several experimental studies reporting on the effects of word boxes were identified through database searches followed by an ancestral search. Findings from this review revealed that there was evidence to support the use of word boxes for helping preschool to elementary students acquire phonemic awareness, letter-sound correspondences, and spelling. Limitations and directions for future research are presented.

A TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH TO OVERCOME SPECIFIC PHONOLOGICAL ERRORS MADE BY FOREIGN STUDENTS LEARNING BULGARIAN

The purpose of this article is to suggest a technological approach in order to help foreign students learning Bulgarian to overcome specific phonological mistakes at a beginning level.The complex psychological process which takes place during foreign language acquisition is unavoidably accompanied by mother tongue interference. The interference takes place on various levels; however, it is definitely most noticeable with the new phonetic system acquisition. Differentiating phonemes which sound similar is a problematic area in Bulgarian language learning. Foreign students, regardless of their nationality, make specific phonetic-phonological errors, one of which is the so called Epenthesis [i] is being incorrectly inserted in word forms where only [ya] is required.Certain word forms are differentiated in tables, thus helping to understand and rationalize the language regularities which is part of the core language skills for producing oral and written language. Word classes with grammatical forms requiring [-ya], [-iya] are presented in opposing rows. The suggested tables are of great practical value and have been approbated in teaching Bulgarian to foreign students at MU – Plovdiv. They enhance building phonemic perception of individual sound combinations. The work with the students has proved that the suggested technological approach is effective in forming certain practical skills to differentiate the structures in question and to use them appropriately in speaking.Errors ‘anticipatory‘diagnosis enhances their assessment and defines the choice of a relevant technique in order to rectify them. A system of purposeful exercises has been developed to achieve good phonemic awareness, defined concept of sound-letter correspondence, knowledge of segmental and super segmental units of speech flow and good pronunciation. This approach activates students’ motivation in acquiring Bulgarian phonetics and phonology and implementing new general and medical vocabulary.The technological approach suggested in the article is part of the teaching activities, designed to help learners master new knowledge and skills to use Bulgarian both in casual and academic environment. The main purpose of this technique and the observations from teaching practice is to share our professional experience and ideas so that the process of teaching Bulgarian as a foreign language could be optimizes.

A design case study of a tangible system supporting young English language learners

Abstract Many researchers have suggested that tangible user interfaces (TUIs) have the potential to support learning for children. While several tangible reading systems have been developed for children, few systems have been designed that explicitly target the first stage of reading where many children struggle, which is the alphabetic principle (letter-sound correspondences). We present a tangible reading system called PhonoBlocks that supports children learning English letter-sound correspondences. PhonoBlocks uses 3D tangible letters that change colour to draw attention to the moment that adding other letters changes the sounds. We then present a mixed-methods case study with ten Mandarin-speaking children in China using our system. Results showed that the Chinese children achieved significant learning gains relative to their baseline performance after PhonoBlocks instruction. The results also point to design features of our system that enabled behaviours that are correlated with learning. We compare the results of this study to a different study with eight at-risk monolingual English-speaking children in Canada using PhonoBlocks in learning to read and spell. By comparing results, we generalize and make three recommendations for designing tangible reading systems for all children who must learn the alphabetic principle. We also discuss three recommendations that are specifically for children learning English as a foreign language.

The Cow Says …

You have accessThe ASHA LeaderGlimpses1 Mar 2018The Cow Says … Lauren Calder, andMS, CCC-SLP Melissa PaoneMS, CCC-SLP Lauren Calder Google Scholar More articles by this author , MS, CCC-SLP and Melissa Paone Google Scholar More articles by this author , MS, CCC-SLP https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.GL.23032018.10 SectionsAbout ToolsAdd to favorites ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Play-Doh is one of those go-to materials that you can use to target pretty much any speech and language goal—articulation, phonology, sound-letter correspondence, vocabulary, sequencing, following directives, fluency, wh- questions, pragmatics, conversational skills, or overall receptive and expressive language. This child was using Play-Doh to increase vocabulary and general knowledge by working to identify animals and their sounds. It’s a multisensory experience that’s super interactive and child-directed! About us: We’re both originally from the New York area, earned our master’s degrees at New York University, and work for the New York City Department of Education. After going to school and working together, we decided the next natural step was to open our own private practice, More Than Words. Having the practice allows us the perfect opportunity to work with children of all ages. We enjoy using Instagram and social media to share our ideas and to interact with parents and other professionals in our field. Author Notes —Lauren Calder, MS, CCC-SLP, and Melissa Paone, MS, CCC-SLPinstagram.com/morethanwordsnyc Advertising Disclaimer | Advertise With Us Advertising Disclaimer | Advertise With Us Additional Resources FiguresSourcesRelatedDetails Volume 23Issue 3March 2018 Get Permissions Add to your Mendeley library History Published in print: Mar 1, 2018 Metrics Current downloads: 337 Topicsasha-topicsleader_do_tagasha-article-typesleader-topicsCopyright & Permissions© 2018 American Speech-Language-Hearing AssociationLoading ...

Maternal Writing Support for Kindergartners With Cerebral Palsy and Its Relations to Early Literacy Skills

Twenty kindergartners (eight boys) with cerebral palsy (CP) and their mothers engaged in a writing activity that required dyads to compose a grocery list containing four items together. Maternal writing supports were observed, including graphophonemic mediation (i.e., support for letter–sound correspondence) and printing mediation (i.e., guidance on letter choice and form). Mothers described their home literacy practices, and children’s early literacy skills were assessed. Mothers reported engaging in many literacy activities with their children. They also provided variable levels of printing mediation, low levels of graphophonemic mediation, rarely corrected children’s writing errors, and frequently provided physical supports to children during the writing activity. Mothers’ reported literacy activities at home as well the ways in which they helped children choose letters were strongly related to children’s literacy skills. Findings suggest that mothers can bolster their children’s literacy skills through carefully orchestrated writing activities when children have CP.

Teaching Phonics to Preschool Children with Autism Using Frequency-Building and Computer-Assisted Instruction

The current study investigated the effects of a computer-assisted frequency-building intervention to increase fluency with letter-sound correspondences. A multiple probe design across stimulus sets was employed with four children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) to evaluate the outcomes of intervention. Pre-intervention measures of language ability, repetitive, and on-task behavior were recorded in order to assess how such participant characteristics may impact intervention effects. Increases in the rate of correct letter-sound correspondences were found for all participants. Measures of outcomes associated with fluency; namely, maintenance, endurance, stability, application, and generativity were also recorded. Participants demonstrated the ability to maintain high rates of correct responding for all fluency outcomes at post-testing, with the exception of generativity.